INDEX

NOTE: Italic page references indicate figures and tables.

ABC model, 265

Acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT), 259, 266, 314

Acetylcholine, 90, 93, 97, 219, 221, 298

Acid-sensing receptors, 297–98

ACTH (adrenocorticotrophic hormone), 31, 59, 60, 93, 97

Action potential, 83, 84, 99, 132

Active avoidance conditioning, 71–75, 72, 101–4, 262–63, 332n

Active coping, 310–13

Addiction studies, 140–41, 143

Adrenal cortex, 59, 60, 97, 297

Adrenaline, 28, 58, 59, 132, 134

Adrenal medulla, 60, 87, 134

Affective states, primary process, 126–27, 128

Affect program, 121, 121, 124–25, 125

“Age of anxiety,” 6

Age of Anxiety, The (Auden), 6

Alarm response, 59, 298, 321n

Alberini, Cristina, 303

Alcohol, as anxiolytic, 238

Allen, Woody, 7

Allocortex, 85, 86–87

All We Have to Fear (Horwitz and Wakefield), 17, 247

American Psychiatric Association, 11

American Psychological Association, 258–59

Amorapanth, Prin, 103

Amygdala

basal. See Basal amygdala

central. See Central amygdala

electrical stimulation studies, 87–90, 127

in fear (defense) system, 30–31, 31, 35–36, 38, 92, 93, 94–95, 97–98, 100, 103–4, 270, 323n. See also Amygdala-based threat-processing circuit

hypothalamically elicited rage and amygdala-hypothalamic-PAG rage pathway, 87–90, 89

lateral. See Lateral amygdala

nonconscious processing in, 212–14, 219–23

structure, 85, 86, 87

Amygdala-based threat-processing circuit, ix, 92, 127, 209–23

cognitive reappraisal of threats, 214–17, 215

direct effects on cortical processing, 217–19, 218, 220, 221

extinction and, 98, 284–88, 285, 286, 287

in fear and anxiety disorders, 107–11

generalized arousal, 219–23, 220, 222

LeDoux’s view of, 34–37, 36

low-road/high-road model, 209–14, 210

neutral stimuli vs., 207–9, 209

RDoC concept, 251–52

reactions, actions, and threat certainty, 105, 105–7

role of culture and experience, 230–31

threat stimuli routes, 209–14, 210

Amygdaloids, the (band), xii, 156

Anandamide, 241–42, 245

Angh, 2, 13, 319n

Angst (anxiety), 2, 4, 5, 320–21n

Animal consciousness, ix–x, 47–51, 147–48, 150–54, 200–202

anthropomorphic assumptions, 48–49, 50, 119–20, 200–202

Darwin’s legacy in early psychology, 116–17

episodic memory debate, 154, 194–99

Animals, emotions in, 42–43, 48–49, 113–14, 119–20

A-noetic states, 191, 192–94, 201, 205, 223, 345n

Anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), 109, 110, 111, 178, 216, 252

Antianxiety drug research, 236–44

DSM vs. RDoC concept, 252–53

gene studies and, 246–47

Antidepressant drugs, 239–41, 241

Anxietas, 2

Anxiety

attention control theory of, 217–18, 276

coming to terms with, 37–41

conscious experience of, 253–57, 255

diagnostic categories, 11–14, 247–49

differences between fear and, 7, 8, 10–11

of everyday life, 317–18

feeling anxious, 231–32

Freud’s theory of, 4–7, 13, 18–19, 22, 234, 236, 320–21n

philosophical understanding of, 4–5, 233, 234

in popular culture, 6, 6–7

psychotherapy for, 258–77. See also Exposure therapy

RDoC concept, 249–54

response-based concept of, 234–35, 237

scientific definitions of, 234–36

similarities between fear and, 7, 8

terminology used, 7–8, 9, 10, 41–42

uncertainty and anticipation model of, 108, 108–9, 111–12, 251

“Anxiety,” 2–7, 41–42, 225–26, 236, 320–21n

Anxiety disorders, 11–13, 12, 233–34. See also Fear and anxiety disorders

drug classes for treatment of DSM-IV, 240–41, 241

Anxiety neurosis, 4, 12

Anxiolytics, 237–42, 241, 243, 253

behavioral tasks testing effects, 239, 240

Anxious genes, 15–16, 16, 244–47

Aquinas, Thomas, 3

Armony, Jorge, 98

Arousal, 63, 90, 97, 132, 219–23, 220, 224–25

RDoC matrix, 250, 251

Arousal systems, 85, 90, 91, 315

“As if” loop, 135–36

Associative learning, 28, 65, 98, 293

Attention

consciousness and, 176–77

threat processing and, 212–19

Attentional amplification theory, 171, 173, 177, 347n

Attentional blink, 217–18

Attention control theory of anxiety, 217–18, 276

Auden, W. H., 6, 7

Austin, James, 314

Autonoetic consciousness, 191–98, 202, 207, 229–33, 247, 253, 255, 317

Autonomic nervous system (ANS), 56, 57, 58, 82, 87–88, 95, 133, 205, 207–8, 299, 313–14

Avoidance conditioning, 71–77, 101–4, 102, 262–63

trumping extinction with proactive, x, 310–13

Axons, 83, 84, 90, 139, 219

Baars, Bernard, 161

Bacon, Francis, 37–38

Bain, Alexander, 118, 140

Balleine, Bernard, 138–39, 140

Barbiturates, 238

Bard, Philip, 87–88

Barlow, David, 5, 15, 16, 256, 278, 292

Barrett, Lisa, 19, 123–24, 226, 230

Basal amygdala (BA), 31, 94, 95, 96, 101, 107, 218, 218–19, 355n

Basal ganglia, 86, 87, 179, 299

Basic emotions theory, 19, 121, 121–25, 125, 133

Beck, Aaron, 265–67, 271

Bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST), 105, 105–8, 111, 223, 251, 298

Behavioral acts, defining anxiety by, 234–35

Behavioral approach to antianxiety research, 242–44

Behavioral defense responses. See Defense reactions

Behavioral inhibition theory, 38–39, 78–79, 106, 107, 111, 237

Behaviorism, 19, 26, 32, 118, 120, 148, 234, 235

Behavior therapy, 259, 260, 261, 264–68

Benzodiazepines, 12–13, 39, 238–41, 241, 243, 252–53

Bernstein, Leonard, 6

Berridge, Kent, 103, 120, 131, 141–42

Berrios, G.E., 131

Biases, 109, 111, 214, 267

Biological factors, 15–16, 16

Bistable images, 340n

Blaming the Brain (Valenstein), 238

Blanchard, Caroline, 28, 61

Blanchard, Robert, 28, 61

Blindsight patients, 166, 167, 168, 173, 205, 208, 211

Block, Ned, 156, 163–64, 173–74, 175–76

Body feedback theories of emotions, 18–19, 117–18, 133–38, 139

Body states, 135–36, 138, 299

Bolles, Robert, 28, 33, 63, 328n

Bonanno, George, 311

Borkovec, Thomas, 275

Bouton, Mark, 28, 256, 269

Boyden, Ed, 99

Brain, 82–112. See also specific parts of brain

abbreviations of key areas, 86

active avoidance circuitry, 101–4, 102

conscious and nonconscious threat processing, 206, 206–7

conscious feelings emergence in, 226–27, 228

consciousness and, 164–79, 171

electrical stimulation studies, 87–90, 127–33

emotions in, 119–33

extinction in, 98, 110, 283–89, 285, 286, 287, 298–99

in fear and anxiety disorders, 107–12

memories becoming conscious in, 184–88

structure and function, 83–87, 84–85

threatening stimuli, 92–101, 93, 94, 96

threats vs. neutral stimuli, 207–9, 209

uncertainty, risk, and, 105–7

Breathing away anxiety, 313–14, 315–17

Brewin, Chris, 273, 279

“Bricolage,” 227

British philosophy, 118, 140

Brooks, Mel, 7

Brown, Richard, 174

Buddhism, 160–61, 317

Bush, George W., 282

Butler, Samuel, 181

Cain, Chris, 73, 101

Calcium channel modulators, 241, 241

Campese, Vin, 101

Cannabis, 242

Cannon, Walter, 54, 56, 58, 59, 87, 88, 133

Carvalho, Gil, 138

Cash, Rosanne, vi, xii

Cells, 82, 83, 84

Central amygdala (CeA)

extinction circuitry, 285, 287–88, 310–11, 355n

in fear (defense) system, 30, 31, 92, 93, 95, 97, 101–3, 104

nonconscious processing in, 220, 221

Central defense system, 41, 325n

Central motivational state, 19, 63, 120, 234

Central state view of fear, 19, 32–34, 33, 37, 39, 45–46, 63, 120, 237

Cerebral cortex, 85, 86, 88, 230

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), 297–98

Chalmers, David, 156–57

Chamberlin, Thomas, 47

Changeux, Jean-Pierre, 161

Charles Bonnet Syndrome, 174

Chemical imbalance hypothesis, 238, 245

Choi, June-Seek, 101

Chomsky, Noam, 349n

Circa-strike stage, 62, 62, 78

Clark, David, 265–66

Classical conditioning. See Pavlovian conditioning

Clayton, Nicky, 195

Cleeremans, Axel, 161

Clem, Roger, 308

Clore, Gerald, 19, 230

Cognition

in exposure therapy, 268–75

in extinction, 267–70

feelings as interface between reaction and, 138–39

mental state consciousness and, 149–54

in RDoC matrix, 250, 251

Cognitive-behavior therapy, 259, 260, 264–65

Cognitive conscious feelings, 126–27, 128, 129, 138

Cognitive dissonance, 132, 255

Cognitive exposure therapy, 264–75

Cognitive restructuring, 277, 306

Cognitive therapy, 259, 260, 264–75, 282

Cognitive unconscious, 47, 147, 149, 159, 193

Commentary keys, 152–53, 161, 165, 176, 197

Composed (Cash), vii

Concept of Anxiety, The (Kierkegaard), 5

Conceptual acts, 226, 230

Conditioned negative reinforcement, 74, 76, 103

Conditioned reinforcer, 74, 76, 76

Conditioned responses (CRs), 28–30, 29

Conditioned stimulus (CS), 28–30, 29, 31, 65–69, 94–95

conscious vs. nonconscious threats in human studies, 204, 204–5

extinction and, 65–67, 268–70, 283–87, 291

roles in avoidance, 71–77, 76, 101–4

Consciousness, ix–x, 146–80, 199–200

in animals. See Animal consciousness

attention and, 176–77

behaviorists and, 19

brain basis of, 164–79, 171

emergence of emotional feelings in, 226–27, 228

experience of anxiety, 253–57, 255

first-order theory of, 162–64, 163

global workspace theory of, 161–62, 162

higher-order theories of, 159–61, 160

information-processing theories of, 158–64

James’s theory of, 117–18

language and, 149–50, 154–55, 200

memory and, 181–88, 191, 191–92, 193–94, 207

mental state and cognition, 149–54

mental state vs. creature, 146–47, 147

neocortex in, 177–79

nonconscious vs. conscious processing of threats, 204, 204–7, 206

qualia problem, 155–57

subcortical theories of, 174–76

unconscious challenge and, 148–49

Consolidation of memories, 186, 186, 193, 301, 302, 303

Conspecific aggression, 53, 95

Context dependence, as limit of extinction, 289, 290, 291

Contextual conditioning, 65, 67

Controlled breathing, 313–14, 315–17

Core beliefs (schemas), 265, 271

Cornell Medical School, 26, 30

Cortical consciousness networks (CCNs), 178–79, 179, 187–88, 206, 219, 315

Cortisol, 28, 31, 59, 97, 134, 292, 297

Craig, Bud, 136–37

Craske, Michelle, 279, 293–95

Crayfish, 39, 246

Creature consciousness, 146–47, 147, 179, 193, 201

Crichton, Michael, 130

Crick, Francis, 170, 172

Crypsis, 55–56

Cued conditioning, 65, 66

Culture, and amygdala threat response, 230–31

Cyclic AMP response binding element protein (CREB), 288–89, 295, 357n

Dalgleish, Tim, 273, 279

Damasio, Antonio, 134–38, 135, 136, 139, 147, 157, 175–76, 224

Darwin, Charles, 140

emotional legacy in early psychology, 116–18

theory of emotions, 114–16, 121, 144–45

theory of fear, 32, 32, 33, 37, 54

Davidson, Richard, 314

Davies, Martin, 174

Davis, Michael, 30, 297

D-cycloserine (DCS), 297

Dębiec, Jacek, 305, 306

Decision making, Pavlovian incentives role in, 76–77, 104, 328–29n

Decision systems, 80–81

Declarative memory. See Explicit memory

Deep brain stimulation (DBS), 298–99

Deep survival, 42–43

Defense reactions, 32–34, 41, 54–56

amygdala-hypothalamic-PAG rage pathway, 87–90, 89

escape and avoidance, 69, 71–77

“freeze, flight, and fight” response, 54–55, 55, 61, 63–64

Pavlovian conditioning of, 64–69

physiological support of, 56, 57, 58–59, 60, 87–90

predatory imminence theory of, 61–63, 62

risk assessment behaviors, 38–39, 77–80

Defensive burying, 55

Defensive motivational states, 32, 32, 39, 44–47, 45, 61–64, 75, 143–44, 223–25, 254, 256, 325n

fear and, 227–31

role of memory and learning, 64, 69–71

Defensive survival circuits, 37, 43–47, 45, 54, 63, 134, 207–9

Defensive system, 41, 325n

Dehaene, Stanislas, 161, 163–64, 173

Deisseroth, Karl, 99

Delgado, Mauricio, 98, 216–17

Dendrites, 83, 84

Dennett, Daniel, 149–50, 154, 161

Depression, 14, 234, 238–39, 250, 299

Descartes, René, 148, 149, 151, 200

Descartes’ Error (Damasio), 134

Desensitization, 264, 277

De Waal, Frans, 49

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM), 11–14, 247–49, 251

Diagnostic categories, 11–14, 247–49

Diaz-Mataix, Lorenzo, 303–4, 305

Dickinson, Anthony, 138–39, 140, 195

Dickinson, Emily, 1

“Disorder,” 17

Dog-bite scenario, 92, 94, 94–95

Dolan, Ray, 98

Dominant trace theory, 307

Dopamine, 90, 93, 97, 103, 104, 142–43, 219, 246, 298, 299–300, 338n

Dorsal striatum, 104, 110

Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (PFCDL), 178, 179

Doyère, Valérie, 303–4, 305

Drives, 77, 134

Drug discovery research, 236–44

DSM vs. RDoC concept, 252–53

gene studies and, 246–47

Drug enhancement, of extinction, 296–98

Dualism, 157

Duchenne de Boulogne, Guillaume-Benjamin, 114, 115

Dudai, Yadin, 306–7

Dylan, Bob, 182

Edinger, Ludwig, 322n, 330n

Ehlers, Anke, 266

Eichenbaum, Howard, 195

Ekman, Paul, 121–22, 122, 123

Ekman faces, 122, 122

Electrical brain stimulation, 87–90, 92, 119, 127–33, 331n

Emergency response, 56, 57, 58–59, 60

Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 52

Emotional Brain, The (LeDoux), vii–viii, 23, 35, 36, 51

Emotional consciousness, 203–32

Emotional intelligence, 224

Emotional processing theory, 271–75, 355n

Emotional schemas, 226, 230, 265

Emotion command system hypothesis, 125–30, 137–40, 175–76

basic and cognitive feeling circuits, 127, 128

feelings and emotional behavior intertwined, 125–26, 126

role of emotions, 134, 135, 136

Emotions (emotional feelings), 113–45, 225–32

in animals, 42–43, 48–49, 113–14, 119–20

anxious feelings, 231–32

basic emotions theory, 19, 121–25, 133

body feedback theories of, 18–19, 117–18, 133–38

in the brain, 119–33, 207–9, 214–17

cognitive-based theory of, 20–21

Darwin’s legacy in early psychology, 116–18

Darwin’s theory of, 114–16, 121, 144–45

emergence in consciousness, 226–27, 228

emotion command system hypothesis, 125–30, 128, 134, 135, 137–40, 175–76

experience of, 225–27

fearful feelings, 227, 229–31

innate view of, 28, 43, 113–16, 144–45

as interface between reaction and cognitive systems, 138–39

limbic system theory of, 24, 87, 89, 120, 322n

pain and pleasure, 139–44

regulation and amygdala, 214–17

rethinking the emotional brain, 23–51

theories of, 18–21, 114–38

Empathy, 49, 121, 232

Encoding (acquisition) of memories, 186, 186, 285

Encounter stage, 61–62, 62

Endocannabinoid system, 241–42

Endocrine support of defense, 59, 60, 97, 291

Epigenetics, 16, 246

Episodic memory, 182–84, 183, 184

animal consciousness and, 154, 194–99, 195

conscious feelings emergence in, 228, 229

emotional concepts and, 226

in relation to conscious states, 191, 191–92, 193–94

retrieval of, 186–88

Epstein, Mark, 232, 317

Escape from threat, 72–75, 73, 103, 310–11

Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind (movie), 301

Everitt, Barry, 103, 305

Everyday anxiety, 317–18

anxiety disorders vs., 11–13, 12

Evolution, 24, 42–43, 56, 64, 116, 140, 144, 322n

Existential anxieties, 5, 231–32

Existentialism, 4–5

Experimental extinction, 268

Explicit (declarative) memory, 182–83, 184, 187, 188, 188–89, 190, 193, 196, 208, 274, 295

Explicit reappraisal, 215, 215

Exposure therapy, 259, 260, 260–77

cognition in, 268–75

cognitive makeover of, 264–68

extinction in. See Extinction, in exposure therapy

history of, 262–64

Mowrer-Miller theory in, 74–75, 262–64

targeting implicit processes, 278–80

treating worry with, 275–77

Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, The (Darwin), 114

Expressive actions, 114–15

Extended amygdala, 87, 105, 105–6

Extinction

disentangling reconsolidation and, 306–7, 308

in exposure therapy. See Extinction, in exposure therapy

how it works in the brain, 98, 110, 283–89, 285, 286, 287, 298–99

with proactive avoidance, x, 310–13

threat conditioning, 65–67, 68

Extinction, in exposure therapy, x, 67, 261, 267–70, 282–83, 289, 289–300, 290

cognition and, 268–70

enhancing procedure, 293–300

limitations, 289, 289–93

neurobiological enhancements, 296–300

Eye movement desynchronization reprocessing (EMDR), 260

Eyewitness testimony, 304–5

Eysenck, Michael, 217–18, 276, 279

Facial expressions, 121–22, 122, 123

False memories, 305

Fanselow, Michael, 28, 30, 33, 61–63, 62

Fear

as cognitive consequence of threat processing, 34–37

coming to terms with, 37–41

differences between anxiety and, 7, 8, 10–11

similarities between anxiety and, 7, 8

terminology used, viii–ix, 7–8, 9, 10, 41–42

“Fear,” viii–ix, 38, 41–42, 225–26, 236, 320–21n

Fear affect program. See Affect program

Fear and anxiety disorders, 14–17

alterations in threat processing and defensive response, 107–11, 108

factors predisposing, 14–16, 16

major symptoms of, 14, 15

threat processing in, 17–18, 18

Fear (threat) conditioning. See Pavlovian fear conditioning

Fearful feelings, viii, 227, 229–31

Fear structures (schemas), 271

Fear system, 30–34

central state view of, 32–34, 33, 37, 39, 45–46, 63, 120, 237

Darwinian (commonsense) view of, 32, 32, 33, 34, 37, 38, 45, 117–20, 124

LeDoux’s view of, 34–37, 36

threat stimuli and fear responses, 31–34, 32

Feedback theories of emotions, 18–19, 117–18, 133–38, 139

“Feel Good Gene, The” (Friedman), 245

Fenton, Andre, 309

Fight-flight response, 17, 28, 54–55, 60, 62

First-order theory, 162–64, 163, 171, 174, 175–76

Fletcher, Garth, 40–41

Flooding (implosive therapy), 264, 292

FMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging), 212

Foa, Edna, 271, 275

Focused attention, 221, 314–15

Folk psychology, 37–38, 40–41, 50, 81

Foraging, 54, 76, 78

Forebrain, 85, 86, 86, 87–88

Forrest, Simon, 227

Fowles, John, 203

Free-floating fear, 321n

Free will, 233

“Freeze, flight, and fight” response, 54–55, 55, 61, 63–64

Freezing, 28, 29, 54–55, 55, 61, 63, 69, 79–80, 243

Freud, Sigmund, 4–7, 13, 18–19, 22, 148, 149, 234, 236, 259, 260, 262, 263, 320–21n

Friedman, Richard, 245–46

Frijda, Nico, 19

Frith, Chris, 154, 192

Frith, Uta, 192

Functionalism, 164–65

Furcht (fear), 4, 5, 320–21n

Fuster, Joaquin, 170

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid), 238, 240–41, 242, 252, 286–87

Gabriel, Michael, 332n

Galatzer-Levy, Isaac, 248

Gazzaniga, Michael, x, 24, 26, 34, 132, 161, 192, 223–24

Gender, and antianxiety drug research, 243

Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), 13–14, 15, 110, 234

drug classes for treatment, 241, 241–42

Generalized arousal, 219–21, 220

General psychological processes, as factor predisposing anxiety, 16, 16

Genes (genetics), 15–16, 16, 244–47

Gene therapy, and extinction, 299–300

Glial cells, 83, 84

Global organismic states, 37, 44–47, 134

Global workspace theory, 161–62, 162, 171, 172, 173, 178, 197

Goethe Johann Wolfgang von, 262

Goldman-Rakic, Patricia, 170

Gondry, Michel, 301

Goodale, Mel, 165

Goodall, Jane, 47–48

Gorman, Jack, 310, 311

Grace, Anthony, 103

Graded retraining, 264

Gray, Jeffrey, 38–39, 78–79, 106, 107, 111, 237, 243–44

Gross, James, 215–17, 271, 354n

Grupe, Dan, 108, 108–9, 111–12

“Gut feelings,” 225

Habits, 64, 75, 138

Habit trigger, 75, 76

Habitual avoidance, 71–76, 72, 76

Habituation, 29, 293

Halgren, Eric, 131

Hallucinogens, 298

Hatkoff, Amy, 47–48

Heart rate, 313–14

Heath, Robert, 128–29, 130–33

Hebb, Donald, 92

Hebbian plasticity, 92, 96–97, 97, 98, 99, 100

Hedonic states, 118, 139–40

Hedonism, 140

Heidegger, Martin, 4

Heightened reactivity to threat uncertainty, 108, 110, 251

Helmstetter, Fred, 98

Hess, Walter, 119

Heuristics, 80

Heyes, Celia, 152, 153, 341n

High Anxiety (movie), 7

Higher-order theories of consciousness, 159–61, 160, 171, 197

High road to the amygdala, 209–14, 210

Hindbrain, 85, 86, 86, 88

Hippocampus, 106

extinction circuitry, 284–86, 285, 291–92

in fear and anxiety disorders, 107–11, 108

memory and, 184–86, 185, 188, 190, 193, 196, 199, 309, 344n

threat conditioning and, 92, 93, 98, 106, 107–11

Hirst, Bill, 304

Hitchcock, Alfred, 6–7

Hitchens, Christopher, 233

HM (Henry Molaison), 190

Hofmann, Stefan, 267–68

Homeostasis, 58, 89–90

Horwitz, Allan, 17, 247

Huganir, Richard, 308

Human Genome Project, 245

Humanistic therapy, 259

Huntington’s disease, 245

Huxley, Aldous, 344n

Hyman, Steve, 249

Hyperventilation, 59, 321n

Hypervigilance, 17–18, 108, 108–9, 251

Hypnosis, 143, 178, 260

Hypothalamus, 87–89, 88, 95, 128

hypothalamically elicited rage and amygdala-hypothalamic-PAG rage pathway, 87–90, 89, 297

Hypothetical constructs, 32

Imipramine, 12

Impaired ability to discriminate threat and safety, 108, 109–10, 251

Implicit memory, 182, 188, 188–91, 190, 283, 295

in relation to conscious states, 191, 191–92, 193–94

Implicit processes, 147–48, 149, 158

targeting of, 278–80

Implicit reappraisal, 215, 215, 308

Incentives. See Pavlovian incentives

Increased avoidance, 108, 110, 251

Information flow, 24–26, 25

Information-processing theories, 158–64, 159

Informed consent, 130, 337n

Innate behaviors, 115, 119, 350n

Innate circuits, 38, 43, 46–47, 133

Innate defensive reactions, 61–64, 64, 69

Innate view of emotion, 28, 43, 113–16, 144–45

Inner World of Farm Animals, The (Hatkoff), 47–48

Insel, Tom, 247–48, 249–50

Instructed Pavlovian conditioning, 68–69, 70, 98

Instrumental conditioning, 27, 27, 29, 30, 64, 140, 259

Instrumental responses, 71–72, 77

Insular cortex, 110, 136–37, 252

Integrated information theory of consciousness, 154, 172

Intercalated cells (ITC), 31, 93, 94, 95, 288, 355n

Interpretation bias, 109

Interpreter theory of consciousness, 34, 161, 192, 223–24

Intervening variables, 32, 118

Izard, Caroll, 121–22, 133

James, William, 18, 32, 117–18, 133, 257

Johansen, Josh, 98, 100

Josselyn, Shenna, 357n

Judgment bias, 111

Kagan, Jerome, 23

Kahneman, Daniel, 80

Kandel, Eric, 26–30

Kapp, Bruce, 30, 323n

Kendler, Ken, 247

Kierkegaard, Søren, 3, 5, 233, 234, 253, 321n

Klein, Donald, 12–13, 42, 59, 298, 321n

Koch, Christof, 154, 170, 172, 173–74

Kozak, Michael, 271, 275

Kraepelin, Emil, 4

Kringelbach, Morten, 131

Kron, Assaf, 226

LaBar, Kevin, 98

Lamme, Victor, 172

Lang, Peter, 234–35, 237, 271–72, 273, 278, 350n

Language. See also Verbal self-reports

basic emotions theory and, 123–24

consciousness and, 149–50, 154–55, 200

of fear, anxiety, and other emotions, 37–38, 46, 50, 230–31

Language behavior, defining anxiety by, 234–35

Laocoön and His Sons (statue), 2–3, 3, 114, 319n

Lashley, Karl, 47, 191

Lateral amygdala (LA)

extinction circuitry, 287–88, 310–11

in fear (defense) system, 30, 92, 93, 94–95, 97, 99, 100, 100–103, 104, 218–19

Lateral prefrontal cortex (PFCl), 85, 87, 178, 215, 215–16, 252, 260–61, 279

Lau, Hakwan, 174

“Law of effect,” 118, 140

Lázaro-Munoz, Gabriel, 101

Learning. See also Memory; Pavlovian fear conditioning

instrumental conditioning and, 27, 27, 29, 30, 64, 140, 259

response-outcome (R-O), 71–74, 72

LeDoux, Milo, 319n

Levis, Donald, 265

Levi-Strauss, Claude, 227

Lewis, Michael, 192, 226

Lie to Me (TV show), 122–23

“Liking,” 141–42

Limbic cortex, 85, 87

Limbic system theory of emotions, 24, 87, 89, 120, 322n, 330n

Local circuits (networks), 84, 85

Loftus, Elizabeth, 304–5

Logic, 123, 232

Logothetis, Nikos, 199

Loss of Sadness, The (Horwitz and Wakefield), 17

Low road to the amygdala, 209–14, 210

Lutz, Antoine, 314

McEwen, Bruce, 59

McGaugh, James, 59

McNally, Richard, 234

McNaughton, Neil, 38–39, 78–79, 106, 107, 111

Mad (magazine), 6

Maladaptive behavioral and cognitive control in the presence of threats, 108, 111, 251

Malinowski, Peter, 315

Markova, I. S., 131

Marks, Isaac, 267

Martinez, Raquel, 101

Masking, 150, 151, 166, 205

Maugham, W. Somerset, 146

May, Rollo, 7

Medial prefrontal cortex (PFCM), 85, 87, 97–98, 215–16, 219, 241, 270, 271, 279, 288

Medial temporal lobe memory system, 184–86, 185, 190, 193, 207, 208

Meditation, 160–61, 260, 314–17, 316

Meineck, Peter, 319n

Memory, 181–202

brain and, 184–88

conscious feelings emergence in, 226–27, 228, 229–30

consciousness and, 181–88, 191, 191–92, 193–94, 207

defining conscious states in relation to, 191–92

episodic. See Episodic memory

explicit. See Explicit memory

implicit. See Implicit memory

making conscious, 184–88

nonconscious, 188–91

phases of, 186, 186–87

psychotherapy and, 281–83

remembering what it is like to feel fear or anxiety, 225–26

working. See Working memory

Memory erasure, 281–82, 301–9

Memory retrieval, 186, 186–88, 188, 193, 194, 229, 260, 289, 295, 301–9, 302

Menand, Louis, 233, 253

Mendelian genetics, 245

Mental Evolution in Animals (Romanes), 116–17

Mental state consciousness, 116, 146–47, 147, 193

in animals, 150–55, 194, 201

cognition and, 149–54

Mental time travel, 183–84, 198

Mepobromate, 238

Messerschmidt, Franz Xavier, 114, 115

Metacognition, 153, 160–61

in animals, 153–54

Midbrain, 85, 86, 86, 88

Milad, Mohamed, 98

Miller, Neal, 74–75, 262–63

Milner, David, 165

Mindfulness, 260, 266, 314–15

Mineka, Susan, 256

Mirror test of self-awareness, 152

Molecular genetics, 245, 308

Monfils, Marie, 307–9

Monitoring, 224–25, 226, 228

Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs), 239, 241

Montaigne, Michel de, 1, 10, 187

Morgan, Lloyd, 117, 119, 201

Morgan, Maria, 284

Morphine, 143

Moscarello, Justin, 101

Motivational states. See Defensive motivational states

Mowrer, O. Herbert, 32, 34, 74–75, 262–63, 324n

Multiple drafts theory, 161

Multiple representation theory, 273, 278

My Age of Anxiety (Stossel), 238

Naccache, Lionel, 161, 163–64

Nader, Karim, 103, 281, 301, 303–4, 305

Nagel, Tom, 156–57

Nanobots, 300

National Academy of Sciences, 37

National Institute for Drug Abuse (NIDA), 103

National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), 103, 233, 247–48, 249–51

Negative reinforcement, 74–75, 103, 143

Neocortex, 24, 85, 86, 330n

in consciousness, 177–79

Neural hypothesis, 260–61

Neuromodulators, 75, 90, 97, 103, 141, 219–21, 288, 315. See also specific chemicals

Neurons, 83, 84, 85–86

Neuroscience, 26–28, 115, 130, 140, 200

Neurosis, 11–12

Neurotransmission, 83, 84, 238, 241–42

New York Consciousness Collective, 156

New York Times, 39, 156, 282, 311

New York University (NYU), 30, 156

Nitschke, Jack, 108, 108–9, 111–12

NMDA (N-methyl-d-aspartate), 296–97

Noetic consciousness, 191, 191–94, 198, 199, 207, 229, 230, 231

Nonassociative learning, 293

Nonconscious memory, 188–91

Nonconscious threat processing, 204, 204–7, 206, 212–14, 219–23

Nondeclarative memory. See Implicit memory

Norepinephrine, 90, 93, 134–35, 240–41

Nucleus accumbens (NAcc), 102, 102–3, 104, 107, 108, 251, 311

Nutritional needs, 52, 53, 77, 120

Observational learning, 68, 70, 98

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), 13, 14

“Occasional reinforcement,” during extinction, 294

Ochsner, Kevin, 215–17, 271, 354n

Odors of predators, 56, 65, 330n

Öhman, Arne, 98

Olsson, Andreas, 98

Open monitoring, 315

Operant conditioning. See Instrumental conditioning

Optogenetics, 98, 99, 100, 141, 142–43

Orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), 104, 109, 110, 178, 252

Orexin, 97, 219, 297

Ortony, Andrew, 19, 230

Ostroff, Linnaea, 100–101

Overt behaviors, 235, 265, 350n

Overvaluation of threat significance and likelihood, 108, 111, 251

Oxytocin, 241, 288, 298

Pain, 139–44, 339n

Pakula, Alan J., 7, 320n

Panic attacks, 12–13, 256

Panic disorders, 13–14, 15, 42

Panksepp, Jaak, 125–30, 126, 134, 135, 135, 137–40, 157, 175–76, 336n

Parasympathetic nervous system, 56, 57, 58–59, 93, 97, 299, 313–14

Parietal cortex (PAR), 86, 166, 169–70, 171, 185, 186–87

Passive avoidance, 79, 79–80

Pattern completion, 191, 226, 229–30

Pattern recognition, 226

Pavlov, Ivan, 27, 291

Pavlovian (classical) conditioning, 27–28. See also Pavlovian fear conditioning

behavior therapy and, 259

conditioned reinforcer, 74, 76, 76

instrumental conditioning compared with, 27

memory and, 188

Pavlovian fear (threat) conditioning, 28–31, 64–69, 340n

active avoidance, 71–77, 101–4, 102

brain processing of, 92–101, 93, 94, 96, 99, 100

the circuit, 31, 31

conscious vs. nonconscious threats in human studies, 204, 204–5

contextual conditioning, 65, 67

cued conditioning, 65, 66

extinction of, 65–67, 68, 268–70, 283–88

Hebbian theory of plasticity, 92, 96–97, 97, 98, 99, 100

instructed conditioning, 68–69, 70

molecular mechanisms, 95, 96

observational learning, 68, 70

the procedure, 28–29, 29

safety conditioning, 67–68, 69

as state intervening between threats and defense responses, 32–34

terminology, 41, 41–42

tone in, 28, 66, 71, 94–95, 101, 141

Pavlovian incentives, 71, 76–77, 80

role in decision making, 76–77, 104, 328–29n

Perceptual consciousness, 164–74

Percy, Walker, 130

Periaqueductal gray matter (PAG), 89, 94, 95, 97, 331n

amygdala-hypothalamic-PAG rage pathway, 87–90, 89

in fear and anxiety disorders, 107–11

Personality trait, anxiety level as, 2

Phelps, Elizabeth, xi, 98, 216, 271, 279–80, 304, 308

Phobias, 13, 15, 291–92

Physicalist theories of consciousness, 157–79, 171

Physiological reactions, defining anxiety by, 234–35

Physiological support of defense, 56, 57, 58–59, 60

amygdala-hypothalamic-PAG rage pathway, 87–90, 89

Piaget, Jean, 226

Picoult, Jodi, 258

Piloerection, 87

Pituitary-adrenal system, 59, 60, 97, 291

PKMzeta, 309

Plasticity, 92, 96–97, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 161, 309

“Playing dead,” 55, 62

Pleasure, 139–44, 339n

Pope, Alexander, 281

Popular culture, anxiety depicted in, 6, 6–7

Porges, Stephen, 299

Positive reinforcement, 74

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), 13–14, 15, 248, 266, 282, 304, 305

Preattentive sensory memory, 164, 342n

Preconscious, 149, 164, 187

Predators, 52–54, 56, 61–64

odors of, 56, 65, 330n

Predatory aggression, 53, 95

Predatory imminence theory, 61–63, 62, 78

Preencounter stage, 61–61, 62, 78

Prefrontal cortex (PFC), 49, 86, 177–79

extinction circuitry, 283–88, 285, 287

in fear and anxiety disorders, 107–11

lateral. See Lateral prefrontal cortex

medial. See Medial prefrontal cortex

in memory, 186–87, 187, 196, 199

in perceptual consciousness, 166, 168–70, 171, 172–74

ventromedial. See Ventromedial prefrontal cortex

Prendergast, Shirley, 227

President’s Council on Bioethics, 281, 282

Prey, 52–56, 61–64

Primary anxiety, 4, 5, 321n

Primary (basic) emotions, 121. See also Basic emotions theory

Primary process affective states, 126–27, 128

Priming, 189, 189–90, 193

Proactive avoidance, x, 311, 313

Prolonged exposure therapy, 264, 271–73

Protein synthesis inhibitors, 301, 303, 306–7

Proximity to a threat, 61, 78

Psychoanalysis, 4, 148, 234, 259, 282, 320n

Psychodynamic treatments, 259

Psychotherapy, 258–77. See also specific types of therapy

common types of, 259, 259–60

memory and, 281–83

PTSD (posttraumatic stress disorder), 13–14, 15, 248, 266, 282, 304, 305

Qualia, 155–57, 203

Qualia Fest, 156

Quirk, Greg, 284

Rachman, Stanley, 235

Radical plasticity hypothesis, 161

Rage, 87–90, 88, 89

Ramirez, Franckie, 101

Rational emotive therapy, 265

Reappraisal, 214–17, 215, 261, 279

Reconsolidation blockade, 301–9, 302

disentangling extinction and, 306–7, 308

without drugs, 307–9, 358n

Reconsolidation hypothesis, 301, 302, 303

Recurrent perpetuation, 221, 222

Reentrant processing, 170, 172, 219, 221–22

Reinforcement, 74–75, 103, 118, 140–41, 143

Reinstatement, as limit of extinction, 289, 290, 291, 293, 310

Reis, Don, 26, 28, 29

Relaxation training, 260, 264, 266, 277, 314

Renewal, as limit of extinction, 289, 290, 291, 293

Repression, 4, 259, 282

Rescorla, Robert, 33, 269

Research Domain Criteria (RDoC), 249–53, 250, 254

Response-outcome (R-O) learning, 71–74, 72

Ressler, Kerry, 297

Reticular formation, 90, 91, 315

Retrieval of memories, 186, 186–88, 188, 193, 194, 229, 260, 289, 295, 301–9, 302

Reward processing (positive valence systems), in RDoC matrix, 250, 251

Risk-as-feelings hypothesis, 80, 329n

Risk assessment, 38–39, 77–80

uncertainty and the brain, 105–7

Robbins, Trevor, 103, 305

Rodriguez, Alex, 122–23

Rogan, Michael, 311

Rolling Stones (band), 7

Rolls, Edmund, 155

Romanes, George, 116–17

Roozendaal, Benno, 59

Rosenthal, David, 159–61, 172–73

Rothbaum, Barbara, 297

Russell, James, 19, 123–24, 226, 230

Sacktor, Todd, 309

Safety conditioning, 67–68, 69

Safety signals, 67–68, 294

Same-order theory. See First-order theory

Sapolsky, Robert, 59, 300

Sara, Susan, 303

Sartre, Jean-Paul, 4

Schachter, Stanley, 132

Schacter, Daniel, 304–5

Schafe, Glenn, 281, 303

Schelling, Gustav, 59

Scherer, Klaus, 19

Schiller, Daniela, 98, 308–9

Schizophrenia, 14, 238–39, 251

Sears, Rob, 101, 297

Secondary emotions, 121

Sekida, Katsuki, 160–61, 315

Selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), 239, 241

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), 239–41, 241, 243

Self

in anxiety, 11, 257

autobiographical memory of, 192

in episodic memory, 183–84

in fear, 11, 50–51

Self-awareness, 152, 197, 198, 233

Self-concept, 192, 197

“Self-less” working memory, 314–17

Self-reports. See Verbal self-reports

Selye, Hans, 58–59

Semantic memory, 182–84, 183, 184

in animals, 195–96

conscious feelings emergence in, 228, 229

emotional concepts and, 226

in relation to conscious states, 191, 191–92, 193–94

retrieval of, 186–88

Serotonin, 90, 93, 245

Sham rage, 87, 88

Shea, Nicholas, 343n

Signal anxiety, 4, 5

Simon, Herbert, 217

Simpson, Blair, 250

Singer, Jerome, 132

Skinner, B. F., 118, 235, 349n

Smith, J. David, 153

Social phobias (social anxiety disorder), 13, 15, 292

Society for Neuroscience, 26

Somatic marker hypothesis, 134–38, 135, 136, 224

Specific learning experiences, as factor predisposing anxiety, 16, 16

Spellbound (movie), 6

Spencer, Herbert, 118, 140

Spider phobia, 109, 235, 270

Split-brain patients, 24–26, 25, 34–35, 132, 179–80

Spontaneous recovery, as limit of extinction, 289, 290, 291, 293, 310

Stage Fright (movie), 6

Starting Over (movie), 7, 320n

State anxiety, 242

Stimulation techniques, to enhance extinction, 298–99

Stimulus-response habits, 75, 138

Stossel, Scott, 238

Stress-induced reversal, as limit of extinction, 289, 290

Subcortical theories of consciousness, 125–30, 134–40, 174–76

Subliminal stimulation, 150, 166, 214

Suffocation alarm response, 59, 298, 321n

Survival circuits, 37, 43–47, 45, 51, 129–30, 145, 207–9

Susann, Jacqueline, 7

Sympathetic nervous system, 56, 57, 58–59, 60, 87–88, 93, 95, 97, 299, 313–14

Sympathoadrenal system, 58, 59, 60

Synapses, 83, 84, 85–86, 103, 141, 272, 289

Synaptic cleft, 83, 84, 85–86

Synaptic Self (LeDoux), vii–viii, 2, 101, 183–84, 238, 260–61, 260n, 268, 296–97

Syntax (grammar), 155, 197–98

Systematic desensitization, 264, 277

System 1 decisions, 80–81

System 2 decisions, 81, 158

Talk therapy, 259, 260–61

Taylor, Jane, 305

Temperament, and anxiety level, 2

Thalamus, 87, 165, 178–79, 209–11

Thermoregulation, 44, 54

Thinking. See Cognition

Thompson, Robert, 130

Thorndike, Edward, 27, 118, 140

Threat conditioning. See Pavlovian fear conditioning

Threat processing. See also Amygdala-based threat-processing circuit

attention and, 212–19

in fear and anxiety disorders, 107–11, 108

conscious vs. nonconscious, 204, 204–7, 206

negative valence systems, in RDoC matrix, 250, 251

in psychiatric disorders, 17–18, 18

Threat stimuli and defense responses, 31–34, 32, 41, 209–14, 210

Tinbergen, Niko, 113, 119, 137

Tolkien, J.R.R., 82

Tomkins, Silvan, 121–22, 133

Tonic immobility, 55

Tononi, Guilio, 154, 172

Trait anxiety, 242

Transcranial direct current stimulation, 299

Transcranial magnetic stimulation, 299

Trauma and stressor-related disorders, 14

Tricyclic antidepressants, 239, 241

Tulving, Endel, 182, 191–95, 229, 230, 345n

Twin studies, 244–45

Uncertainty, risk, and the brain, 105–7

Uncertainty and anticipation model of anxiety, 108, 108–9, 111–12, 251

Unconditioned stimulus (US), 28–30, 29, 31, 65–67, 94–95

conscious vs. nonconscious threats in human studies, 204, 204–5

extinction and, 65–67, 268–70, 283–87, 291

role in avoidance, 71, 72–75, 101–4

Unconscious, 4, 148–49, 192–94

Unconscious cognition, 47, 147, 149, 159, 193

Unified cognitive therapy, 278

Universal facial expressions, 121–22, 122, 123

Vagus nerve stimulation, 299

Valenstein, Elliot, 238

Valium, 7

Valley of the Dolls (Susann), 7

Vandekerckhove, Marie, 129, 175

Van der Kolk, Bessel, 311

Ventral striatum, 102, 104, 107–8

Ventromedial prefrontal cortex (PFCVM), 97–98, 102, 109, 178, 215, 216, 252, 283–86, 285, 308

Verbal Behavior (Skinner), 349n

Verbal self-reports, 49, 128–29, 137, 149–50, 168, 197–98, 205, 235–36

Vertebrate brain, 84, 85

Vertigo (movie), 7

Vicarious exposure, 264

Visual cortex, 165–70, 167, 168, 172–76, 206, 208, 209

Visual pathways, 165–69, 167, 168, 169

Vuilleumier, Patrik, 98

Wagner, Allan, 269

Wakefield, Jerome, 17, 247

“Wanting,” 142

Watson, John, 118, 148

Watt, Douglass, 336n

Weiskrantz, Larry, 152–53, 161, 165

“What Is It Like to Be a Bat?” (Nagel), 156

Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 155, 156

Wolpe, Joseph, 264

Working memory

brain and, 143, 178, 184–88

conscious feelings emergence in, 226–27, 228

consciousness and, 109, 143, 158, 159, 160, 164, 169–70, 176, 177, 178, 181–88

making “self-less,” 314–17

meditation and, 316–17, 317

monitoring, 224–25, 226, 228

psychotherapy and, 261

retrieval of, 186–88, 190

Worry, 12, 275–77

cognitive basis of, 276

in DSM-III anxiety disorders, 276, 277

exposure therapy for treating, 276–77

Zeman, Adam, 164

Zen and the Brain (Austin), 314

Zen Training (Sekida), 160–61, 315

ZIP (zeta inhibitory peptide), 309

Zipping memory, 309

Table of Contents

Frontmatter

PREFACE

CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 THE TANGLED WEB OF ANXIETY AND FEAR

CHAPTER 2 RETHINKING THE EMOTIONAL BRAIN

CHAPTER 3 LIFE IS DANGEROUS

CHAPTER 4 THE DEFENSIVE BRAIN

CHAPTER 5 HAVE WE INHERITED EMOTIONAL STATES OF MIND FROM OUR ANIMAL ANCESTORS?

CHAPTER 6 LET’S GET PHYSICAL: THE CONSCIOUSNESS PROBLEM

CHAPTER 7 IT’S PERSONAL: HOW MEMORY AFFECTS CONSCIOUSNESS

CHAPTER 8 FEELING IT: EMOTIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS

CHAPTER 9 FORTY MILLION ANXIOUS BRAINS

CHAPTER 10 CHANGING THE ANXIOUS BRAIN

CHAPTER 11 THERAPY: LESSONS FROM THE LABORATORY

NOTES

BIBLIOGRAPHY

INDEX

CREDITS