Text copyright © 2001 Edith H. Fine and Judith P. Josephson

All rights reserved. Published in the United States by Ten Speed Press, an imprint of the Crown Publishing Group, a division of Random House, Inc., New York.

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Ten Speed Press and the Ten Speed Press colophon are registered trademarks of Random House, Inc.

Art credits:

Momma by Mell Lazarus, One Big Happy by Rich Detorie, and Rubes by Leigh Rubin are reprinted with permission of the artists and Creators Syndicate, Inc.

Baby Blues by Rick Kirkman and Jerry Scott, Beetle Bailey by Mort Walker, Blondie by Dean Young and Denis Lebrun, Crock by Bill Rechin and Don Wilder, Mutts by Patrick McDonnell, Sally Forth by Greg Howard, Sherman’s Lagoon by Jim Toomey, Six Chix by Kathryn Lemieux, and Zits by Jerry Scott and Jim Borgman are reprinted with special permission of King Features Syndicate.

9 Chickweed Lane by Brooke McEldowney (1.1, 1.3, 1.2, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7) © 1998, 1998, 2000, 1998, 2000, 1998, 2000 by Los Angeles Times; Against the Grain by Glenn Foden (1.8) © 1998 by Los Angeles Times; and Single Slices by Peter Kohlsaat (1.9, 1.10) © 2000 and 1998 by Los Angeles Times. Reprinted with permission.

Jeff MacNelly’s Shoe by Chris Cassatt and Gary Brooking and Mother Goose and Grimm by Mike Peters, copyright Tribune Media Services, Inc. All rights reserved. Reprinted with permission.

Committed by Michael Fry, Dilbert by Scott Adams, Drabble by Kevin Fagan, For Better or for Worse by Lynn Johnston, Frank & Ernest by Bob Thaves, Get Fuzzy by Darby Conley, Jump Start by Robb Armstrong, and Marmaduke by Brad Anderson are reprinted with permission by United Feature Syndicate, Inc.

Bizarro © by Dan Piraro, Calvin and Hobbes © by Watterson, In the Bleachers © by Steve Moore, Non Sequitur © by Wiley Miller, Real Life Adventures © by GarLanco, and The Fusco Brothers © by Lew Little Enterprises. Reprinted with permission of Universal Press Syndicate.

B.C. by Johnny Hart and Wizard of Id by Brant Parker and Johnny Hart are reprinted by permission of Johnny Hart and Creators Syndicate, Inc.

The Far Side © 1993 by Farworks, Inc. All rights reserved.

Sylvia © by Nicole Hollander. Reprinted with permission of Nicole Hollander.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Fine, Edith Hope.

More nitty-gritty grammar: another not-so-serious guide to clear communication / by Edith H. Fine and Judith P. Josephson.

p. cm.

Includes index.

1. English language—Grammar.    I. Josephson, Judith Pinkerton. II. Title.

PE1112 .F534 2001 428.2—dc21                                                  2001004601

eISBN: 978-0-307-78565-7

Printed in the United States of America

Cover design by Susan Van Horn

v3.1

Dedication

To all who love language and words.

Acknowledgments

Thanks to our eagle-eyed readers: Hilary Crain,

Teri Feldott, Janelle Fine, Michael Fine, Nick Genovese,

Jill Hansen, Beverly Hamowitz, Pat Hatfield, Melissa

Irick, Kirsten Josephson, Julianne Noll, Jeannie Phelan,

and Kay Vaughan.

We also tip our Grammar Patrol hats to editor

Meghan Keeffe and to our writing group for their

steady support and quick wit.

You Need Nitty-Gritty Grammar If …

• You worry that your participle might be dangling.

• You’d rather cover yourself in honey and roll in a mound of fire ants than think about grammar.

• You sing “Schoolhouse Rock” songs to remember what a conjunction is.

• You think TV newscasters are right when they say “nuCUEler” for “nuclear.”

• You’re never sure whether it’s “it’s” or “its.”

• You’re a CEO, and your mom still corrects your grammar.

• Your grammar checker makes your monitor glow green.

• You have an irrational fear of serial commas.

• You only read books with pictures. (Hey! This one has cartoons!)

• Your grammatically correct dog refuses to “lay down.”

CONTENTS

Cover

Title Page

Copyright

Dedication

Acknowledgments

Introduction

Using This Book

Uh-Oh! A Pop Quiz! About Grammar!

A Nitty-Gritty Grammar Refresher

Grammar A to Z

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

L

M

N

O

P

Q

R

S

T

U

V

Y

More Grammar Resources

About the Authors

Index

INTRODUCTION

Good communication is as stimulating as black coffee, and just as hard to sleep after.

—Anne Morrow Lindbergh

“What? More grammar?” people asked when they heard we were writing More Nitty-Gritty Grammar. “What’s left to say?”

Our answer was “plenty.”

Wearing our Grammar Patrol hats, we’ve appeared as guests on over one hundred radio talk shows since our first grammar guide, Nitty-Gritty Grammar, was published. It’s been fun fielding questions and listening to people’s grammar pet peeves, such as “irregardless” and “between you and I.” We’ll do anything to promote great grammar, including hauling our four-foot-high Grammar Bear with us. While we chatted with “Money in the Morning” radio host, George Chamberlin, the bear kept an eye on the stock quotes.

Be assured that people across the United States and Canada really do care about grammar and language. At KCET in Pasadena, California, host Larry Mantle warned his eager listeners to pull off the freeways before calling in with their grammar gripes. With all this great feedback and fodder, our mission was clear: to write a follow-up book.

More Nitty-Gritty Grammar offers a painless language brush-up with a comic bent, complete with a bevy of new syndicated cartoons. It’s for anyone wanting to refresh, review, or polish grammar skills. Besides digging deeper into topics lightly covered in our first book, we have stretched the strict definition of “grammar” to include usage, literary terms, spelling, and selective style pitfalls.

Both of our grammar books are designed for anyone from 10 to 110. They are indispensable tools for busy executives and other businesspeople, families, English teachers, second-language learners, graduates, and students of all ages. As avid cartoon buffs, the Grammar Patrol appreciates all the cartoonists who slip grammar jokes into their work. So, by popular request, we’ve included over fifty new grammar cartoons by syndicated artists.

We wrote this second grammar guide to explore some finer points of grammar and language, to further demystify grammar, to offer practical suggestions, and to help readers increase their grammatical accuracy. We also wanted to use the many real-life errors from our Blooper Patrol collection. But our most important goal was to serve up easy-access grammar basics, with dollops of laughter on the side.

Edith H. Fine and Judith P. Josephson

Encinitas, California

USING THIS BOOK

Here’s a road map to help you travel easily through More Nitty-Gritty Grammar, whether you stick with the main highways or take shortcuts or detours.

Pop Quiz!

Uh-oh! On this page, there’s a pop grammar quiz. Where do you stand with grammar? Take this quick quiz and see. All the answers are in this book.

A to Z Format

More Nitty-Gritty Grammar has alphabetical listings, so you can go directly to the topic you want. For instance, to learn more about ending sentences with prepositions, look under “P” for “Prepositions,” then find the “To End or Not to End?” header. You can read this guide page by page, or simply browse.

Ticker Tape

In the eBook edition there is no footer along each page, so the content from the Ticker Tape in the print edition shows up in the eBook in the grey boxes that appear randomly throughout the book. The all-new ticker tape are sentences that highlight bloopers frequently seen and heard. You can treat them as a quick refresher. If you say, “I don’t get this,” turn to the page number given in parentheses.

Right, Wrong, Why?

Nitty-Gritty Grammar veterans will also recognize the right-wrong-why icons—“Thumbs Up,” “Thumbs Down,” and “Why?”—that highlight frequent grammatical bloopers. Test your grammar savvy by comparing the right sentence with the wrong one, then read the “Why?” to understand the rule.

Terms and Headers

Grammarspeak We’ve used “Grammarspeak” to label proper grammatical terms, such as phrasal verbs, nonrestrictive clauses, and pronoun reference. Our less formal explanations will help you remember these terms and what they mean.

Substandard English Some words and phrases are labeled “substandard.” “Substandard” means nonstandard English. When a dictionary labels a word “substandard,” you should avoid using it in formal English (in business proposals and presentations, research papers, etc.). “Looking to,” “get ahold of,” “a whole nother,” and “ain’t,” for example, are considered substandard for formal writing or speaking. But the Grammar Patrol itself has been known to say casually, “Ain’t it the truth?” and “That’s a whole nother ball game.”

The Big E Alas, English grammar is riddled with exceptions to the rules. To draw attention to these exceptions, we have highlighted them. Be on the lookout for the label “THE BIG E,” the exceptions.

Tips Grammar suggestions, mnemonics, and strategies are listed under “TIPS.”

Did You Know? Under “DID YOU KNOW,” we’ve included quirks, oddities, and interesting facts about our fascinating English language.

Mnemonic (Memory Aid) Memory aids, called mnemonics, can help jog your memory. These entries give rhymes, images, and ideas that will help you remember grammar terms, rules, or information.

Index

If you don’t find a specific idea you’re looking for in the A to Z listing, check the index.

Cartoons and Humor

Throughout the book, you’ll find cartoons and funny examples, a lighthearted way to learn or review specific grammar points.

Bucky, the irascible cat, doesn’t quite get “the grammar thing.” As usual, he’s trying to blame his fractured spelling, grammar, and syntax problems on Satchel, the hapless dog. (Will anyone buy Bucky’s “gud-smelling” fish heads: “no body, just heads”?)

UH-OH! A POP QUIZ! ABOUT GRAMMER!*

This pop quiz is also a sneak preview of what’s to come. Look for answers to these bloopers within the pages of this book.

1. Let’s divide these chocolates between you and ________.

a. I

b. me

2. Liver is different ________ filet mignon.

a. than

b. from

3. Leona has ___________ baubles than Ivana does.

a. fewer

b. less

4. “_________ down, Satchel!” yelled Bucky.

a. Lie

b. Lay

5. __________ I said, my sweetie’s no Romeo.

a. As

b. Like

6. Leonardo and ________ took a cruise.

a. I

b. me

7. Traffic is looking __________ on the freeway.

a. badly

b. bad

8. The champagne has lost_________ fizz.

a. it’s

b. its

9. An orangutan’s more ________ than a baboon.

a. hairy

b. hairier

10. The sanitation engineer watched the _______________ turn to sludge.

a. affluent

b. effluent

11. Knees knocking, the groom approached the ______________.

a. alter

b. altar

12. ________________ now entering the state of Illinois.

a. Your

b. You’re

13. I should have ____________ you my Vikings tickets.

a. gave

b. given

14. The gerbil _________ behind the stove.

a. snuck

b. sneaked

15. Who authorized ___________ running off to Rio?

a. his

b. him

16. “Help! I’m stuck in the ____________ yelled Santa Claus.

a. chimney,”

b. chimney”,

Stumped? See below for the quiz answers.

* “Grammar” has two a’s. You get two A’s if you caught the misspelling of “grammar” at the top of this page!

Pop Quiz Answers: 1. b, 2. b, 3. a, 4. a, 5. a, 6. a, 7. b, 8. b, 9. a, 10. b, 11. b, 12. b, 13. b, 14. b, 15. a, 16. a

A NITTY-GRITTY GRAMMAR REFRESHER

Words do specific jobs in sentences to create meaning.

Verbs are the engines that power sentences. Without a verb, a sentence goes nowhere. Verbs show action or express a state of being.

The space shuttle Voyager blasted (action) into space.

Sicily was (state of being) in New York City at last!

Nouns are namers. Nouns name persons, places, things, or ideas.

The stunning soprano (person) took eight curtain calls (thing).

Ms. Jacobs’s charisma (idea) draws students to her classroom (place).

Pronouns are substitutes. Pronouns take the place of nouns. For …

Secretariat (noun) won racing’s triple crown.

you can substitute …

He (pronoun) won racing’s triple crown.

Prepositions are locators. Prepositions can show position or time. They can also compare or connect.

Besotted with his neighbor, Gladstone scrambled over (preposition) the fence.

Norman Rockwell painted portraits of (preposition) Americana.

Adjectives are describers. Adjectives describe or modify nouns or other adjectives.

The bride wore black (adjective) boots under her gown.

Adverbs are also describers. Adverbs modify verbs, telling how, when, or where.

Vincent eased gratefully (adverb—how) into his Barcalounger.

“That’s it! I’m leaving for Fiji tomorrow (adverb—when)!” yelled Horace.

The bear lumbered forward (adverb—where).

Adverbs can also modify adjectives or other adverbs.

The starlet’s costume seemed barely (adverb) visible (adjective).

Mrs. Fezziwig danced very (adverb) lightly (adverb).

Interjections are outsiders. They aren’t official parts of a sentence. Interjections show feelings.

Okay, okay (mild interjection). I’ll take out the trash.

Zoinks! (strong interjection) I’m off to the Li’l Abner tryouts.

Conjunctions are connectors. Conjunctions join words or parts of a sentence.

Sushi isn’t sushi without ginger and (conjunction) wasabi.

I studied entomology because (conjunction) my boyfriend’s a bug nut.

GRAMMAR A TO Z

A

ABBREVIATIONS (See acronyms, and initialisms.)

Abbreviations are shortened versions of words, such as “tsp.” for “teaspoon.” While some abbreviations still require periods, the periods have been dropped from others, especially the names of many organizations. Some abbreviations—called acronyms—can be pronounced as a word, such as “NATO” for North Atlantic Treaty Organization. Others—called initialisms—are read letter by letter, such as “AAUW” for the American Association of University Women.

When a sentence ends with an abbreviation that includes periods, use only one period.

Abbreviations are used frequently in parenthetical citations, notes, and bibliographies. Use them as little as possible in the text of your writing. Use only abbreviations that are easily understood by your readers. The first time you use an abbreviation, write out what it stands for, with the abbreviation in parentheses.

Check a recent dictionary when using abbreviations.

A.D. or A.D. (with or without periods) The abbreviation “A.D.” is from the Latin anno Domini, meaning “in the year of the Lord.” The A.D. goes before the year: A.D. 1066, A.D. 2010. Use small caps (small capital letters: A.D.), if possible. Otherwise, use regular capital letters. (See also B.C.)

Let’s finish the croquet match. (Not, Lets—see here.)

a.m. or A.M. The abbreviation “a.m.” stands for the Latin ante meridiem, which means “before noon.” Use it for the time period between midnight and noon. Use “a.m.” with numerals: 4:45 a.m. Don’t use it with words: Instead of “five a.m.,” write “five in the morning.” You can choose whether to use lowercase letters or small caps (small capital letters: A.M.); just be consistent. (While most stylebooks show A.M. with periods, some allow AM without the periods.)

B.C. or B.C. (with or without periods) The abbreviation “B.C.” means “before Christ.” In naming a specific year, the B.C. goes after the year: 274 B.C.

cc The abbreviation “cc” used to stand for “carbon copy.” Used after the signature in business letters, it indicates copies sent to others. Today, carbon copies are outmoded. Grammar Lady Mary Bruder suggests that “cc” can stand for “courtesy copy.”

cf. or cf The abbreviation “cf.” means “compare.” Shown with one reference, it tells you to go to another source and compare the two.

d. The abbreviation “d.” can stand for many words, such as “date,” “day,” “degree,” and “departure.” When used for “died,” write “d. June 29, 1997.”

e.g. The abbreviation “e.g.” is from the Latin exempli gratia (“for the sake of example”). Think of it as “for example.” Use “e.g.” to list specific examples, not to explain or clarify a term or point. When using “e.g.,” put a comma before and after. Use “e.g.” only in citations and notes.

Study Chapter 1: simple machines, e.g., levers, screws, and wedges.

et al. The abbreviation “et al.” means “and others” and is used only in bibliographic entries and footnotes: Runsford, Truman, Jurgin, et al. (Do not put a period after “et”: It’s the Latin word for “and,” not an abbreviation.)

etc. The abbreviation “etc.” is from the Latin et cetera, meaning “and so forth.” Since “et” means “and,” don’t write “and etc.” Use “etc.” sparingly in memos or technical writing when you mean “more of the same.” (Say “et cetera,” not “eck cetera.”)

Right

Car racers face hurdles, such as turns, speed, and pit stops.

Wrong

Car racers face hurdles, such as turns, speed, and pit stops, etc.

She and I are going to the tattoo parlor. (Not, Me and her—see here.)

? Why?

Don’t use “etc.” after a series that begins with “such as.” That’s redundant.

ff The abbreviation “ff” (no periods) means “and the following.” Use “ff” only in citations and notes. (In music, the dynamic marking “ff,” fortissimo, means “play very loudly.”)

Newt reproduction, pages 134 ff, biology textbook

ibid. (pronounced “ib´ id”) The Latin abbreviation “ibid.” means “in the same book or passage.” “Ibid.” is still sometimes used in citations and footnotes when an entry is from the same source as the one cited just before it. But it is better and clearer to repeat the source by author or title. (Footnote styles differ. Choose one stylebook and follow it consistently. See More Grammar Resources.)

Conroy, Pat. The Water Is Wide (New York: Bantam Books, 1972), page 43.

Ibid., page 87. (This cites The Water Is Wide, but a different page number.)

or

Conroy, Pat. The Water Is Wide (New York: Bantam Books, 1972), page 43.

Conroy, Pat. The Water Is Wide, page 87.

i.e. The abbreviation “i.e.” is from the Latin id est, meaning “that is.” Use “i.e.” to explain or clarify, not to give an example. Put a comma before and after “i.e.”

The 30-meter three-legged dash was the penultimate race, i.e., the second to last.

m. or M. The abbreviation “m.” is from the Latin meridies, or “noon.”

12:00 m. means noon

12:00 P.M. means midnight

The abbreviation “m.” can also stand for “month,” “Monday,” and other words.

Ms. or Ms (pronounced “miz”) “Ms.” is the widely accepted courtesy title for women; like “Mr.,” “Ms.” doesn’t indicate marital status.

These kinds of truffles are dangerously good. (Not, These kind—see here.)

n. The abbreviation “n.” can stand for many words, such as “born,” “noun,” “noon,” “north,” and “number.” When used for “born,” it is from the Latin natus: n. January 6, 1913.

n.b. The abbreviation “n.b.” stands for the Latin note bene, meaning “note well.” It alerts your reader to take special note of information.

n.b. Volatility could affect your earnings.

op. cit. The abbreviation “op. cit.” stands for the Latin opere citato: “in the work cited.” You will still sometimes see “op. cit.” in citations and footnotes to refer to a book already cited, but it’s more clear to use a shortened title instead. Include the author’s name.

First footnote entry for a book by this author:

Armstrong, Lance. It’s Not About the Bike: My Journey Back to Life (New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 2000), pp. 105–108.

A later footnote entry for the same book by this author:

Armstrong, It’s Not About the Bike, page 88. (This refers to page 88 in It’s Not About the Bike.)

TIP: Don’t use “op. cit.” if you have footnotes from two different books by the same author. Your reader won’t know which book you mean.

p., pp. The abbreviation “p.” stands for “page”; “pp.” stands for “pages.” Use only in citations, notes, and bibliographies. Don’t use “pg.” or “pgs.,” even if your word processor tries to insist.

p.m. or P.M. The abbreviation “p.m.” stands for the Latin post meridiem: “after noon.” Use it to show the period of time between noon and midnight. (See a.m.)

PS The abbreviation “PS” stands for postscript. (Use no periods.) Use it for an additional thought at the end of a letter.

PS Your check’s in the mail. Really.

vs. or vs The abbreviation “vs.” stands for “versus”: UCLA Bruins vs. USC Trojans. But in most cases, use the word “versus,” rather than the abbreviation.

Gladiator was a movie about good versus evil. (In the language of law, a single “v.” is used for “versus”: Brown v. the Board of Education.)

As I said, Travis rescued Stella. (Not, Like I said—see here.)

ACCENT MARKS

Accent marks, called diacritical marks, are used to help with pronunciation. Here are the most common:

acute accent ( ´ ) tells you that the last syllable of certain words, especially those borrowed from French, is not silent. Thus, the noun “résumé” (ray´ zoo may)—a record of education and achievements—is distinguished from the verb “resume” (reh zoom´): to start again or restart. (In French, this mark is called l’accent aigu.)

grave accent ( ‘ ) indicates pronunciation in French words, such as chère. “Grave” can rhyme with “pave” or be said with an “ah” sound, “grahv.” This French pronunciation (the latter) is heard less frequently.

cedilla (seh dil´ eh) is a c with a squiggle below it: ç. It lets you know that the c is soft, sounding like an s, as in “façade” and “garçon.”

circumflex ( ˆ ) goes over a vowel to indicate a certain quality of sound: crêpes, tête-a-tête.

tilde ( ˜ ) (teel´ deh) tells you to touch your tongue to the roof of your mouth to create an “enyuh” sound as you say words like “señora” or “mañana.”

Marks specific to dictionary pronunciation are also handy to know:

macron ( ¯ ) (may´ kron) shows that a vowel is long. “Kite” looks like this: kīt.

breve ( ˘ ) tells you to use the short vowel sound. So “cat” looks like this: c˘at. (“Breve” can be pronounced two ways: to rhyme with “leave” or like the first syllable of “heaven.”)

umlaut ( .. ) indicates a specific pronunciation (especially in Germanic languages): über, which means “all” in German, and väggklocka, for “wall clock” in Swedish, for instance.

Dictionaries have pronunciation guides to help you decipher these diacritical marks.

She told Steve and me about her cliff-plunge adventure (Not, I—see here.)

ACRONYMS (See initialisms.)

Acronyms are abbreviations formed by using the first letter or first few letters of a series of words. Acronyms are pronounced as words—for instance, SEALs = the Navy’s sea, air, land team. (By contrast, initialisms are pronounced letter by letter.) Some acronyms have become words and are spelled with lowercase letters. Here are three:

radar = “radio detecting and ranging”

scuba = “self-contained underwater breathing apparatus”

laser = “light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation”

Most acronyms, though, are spelled with all capital letters and seldom have periods:

AIDS = acquired immunodeficiency syndrome

MADD = Mothers Against Drunk Driving

NATO = North Atlantic Treaty Organization

NASA = National Aeronautics and Space Administration

UNICEF = United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund

WHO = World Health Organization

PIN = personal identification number

WYSIWYG (Say, “wizzywig”) = “What you see is what you get!”

ADJECTIVES (See phrasals.)

Adjectives are describers. They describe or modify nouns or other adjectives.

delicious cake

high-tech job

blue kite

sad song

broken mirror

unending curiosity

Compound Adjectives (See hyphens, and phrasal adjectives.) When two or more related words work together to describe a noun, they form a compound adjective, known in Grammarspeak as a “phrasal adjective.”

Sergeant Pepper will take roll call. (Not, role call—see here.)

Compound Adjectives before Nouns

If a compound adjective comes before the noun, use a hyphen.

full-time → work

Co Lee, a 24-year-old → pop vocalist

our around-the-world → airfares

the lime-green → VW Bug

an over-the-top → concept

TIP: Keep the compound adjective and its noun separate. Don’t use a hyphen right before the word being modified.

NASA hesitates to overemphasize its life-on-Mars card.

(Not, life-on-Mars-card.)

Compound Adjectives after Nouns

After the noun, don’t use a hyphen with compound adjectives.

Kofi Annan’s U.N. negotiations ← were high level.

Cassie’s job ← at WalMart is full time.

On Minnesota’s KSTP radio, mosquito reports ← are up to the minute.

Compound Adjectives with Ethnicities

With compound ethnic adjectives or nouns, follow the “before” and “after” rules. If the compound adjective is before the noun it modifies, use a hyphen.

Vivian Lu is a Chinese-American actress.

When “Chinese American” is used as a noun, no hyphen is needed.

A Chinese American led the expedition.

Compound Adjective Exceptions

In addition to these reliable “before” and “after” rules, you may notice a baffling array of spellings for compound adjectives. Some always have spaces. Some always have hyphens. Some are always connected as single words. Wouldn’t it be great if one rule covered all compound adjectives? Alas, none exists. In addition to the rules below, let a current dictionary or stylebook guide you.

Jessica’s hunk detector works well. (Not, good—see here.)

Compound Adjectives Without Hyphens

Compound adjectives that don’t have hyphens can be spaced or written as one word.

Some compound adjectives have become so commonplace that they no longer need hyphens. A few examples:

life insurance policy

grand jury investigation

income tax return

post office box

lowest common denominator

Here are examples of one-word compound adjectives with no hyphen:

kindhearted uncle

Highland lassie

statewide moratorium

halfhearted try

Compound Adjectives with Hyphens

Some compound adjectives, like these, keep their hyphens, no matter where they fall in a sentence:

old-fashioned

air-conditioned

tailor-made

soft-spoken

left-handed

time-consuming

Adjective Pitfalls

Resist the urge to use more adjectives than needed. They clutter your writing and distract your readers:

Crystal thinks Bruno is handsome, studly, and gorgeous.

Try using one adjective that says it all:

Crystal thinks Bruno is gorgeous.

Be careful with “fun.” The word “fun” used to be strictly a noun.

Kirsten had fun (noun) at Moana’s wedding.

In casual speech, “fun” has turned into an adjective.

Moana’s wedding was fun. (Adjective: modifies noun “wedding.”)

fun finger foods

fun little dress

fun time

Some dictionaries now recognize “fun” as an adjective in informal speech and writing. Avoid “fun” as an adjective in formal speech and writing. Also avoid the comparative “funner,” as in, “John’s party was funner than Henry’s.”

Hugh wished his telephone had rung. (Not, had rang—see here.)

Don’t modifiy “unique.” (See comparisons.)

The adjective “unique” means “one-of-a-kind,” not “one of several.” You can’t make anything more “one of a kind.” Since the Statue of Liberty is unique, it can’t be “more unique,” “so unique,” or “very unique.”

In Grammarspeak, “unique” is an “absolute adjective.” It doesn’t have degrees of comparison. Other absolute adjectives are “universal,” “ideal,” “main,” and “final.”

ADVERBS

Adverbs are also describers. They modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. Adverbs tell how, when, where, why, how much, or to what extent.

Aunt Blanche sews beautifully. (How does she sew? Beautifully.)

The incomparable Harry Belafonte performs here tonight. (When does he perform? Tonight.)

Adverb Pitfalls (See advertising rule-breakers.)

Avoid using an adjective in place of an adverb.

Wrong

Bridget Jones’s Diary: A Novel did tremendous. (Should be the adverb “tremendously.”)

Wrong

The cartoon Zits shows that teens and adults think different. (Should be the adverb “differently.”)

Tombstone Tour: $45, plus guide’s tip. (Not, guides tip or guides’ tip—see here.)

Don’t be fooled by ly.

Many adverbs end with ly. But some ly words are adjectives: beastly, comely, costly, curly, friendly, growly, homely, pearly, and wobbly.

a costly IPO

The Big Book of Beastly Pronunciations by Charles Harrington Elster

Some ly words can be adjectives or adverbs depending on how they are used.

The Iricks took a leisurely canoe ride. (Adjective: describes “ride.”)

The Iricks paddled leisurely down the Fox River. (Adverb: tells how they paddled.)

ADJECTIVE, ADVERB PUZZLERS (See adjectives, and adverbs.)

Are you still confused about when to use adverbs and adjectives? Here’s advice on other puzzlers:

Bad, Badly

The adjective “bad” describes a noun or pronoun. It’s the opposite of “good.”

Comedian Robin Williams never has a bad night.

The adverb “badly” describes a verb and tells “how” or “to what extent.”

Right

The meeting went badly until the sword swallowers arrived.

Wrong

The meeting went bad until the sword swallowers arrived.

? Why?

Use the adverb “badly” to show how the meeting went.

THE BIG E: With verbs of the five senses, use “bad,” not “badly.” Things can look bad, feel bad, sound bad, taste bad, and smell bad.

I feel bad about dropping the pumpkin. (Not, badly.)

Ludmilla’s Hungarian Goulash smelled bad. (Not, badly.)

Linda loves lying on the beach. (Not, laying—see here.)

Good, Well

The adjective “good” describes a noun or pronoun.

Purple is not a good color for beards and mustaches.

The adverb “well” describes the verb and tells how.

Right

Mary Chapin Carpenter sang well at her concert.

Wrong

Mary Chapin Carpenter sang good at her concert.

? Why?

How did Mary sing? She sang well. The adverb “well” describes the verb “sang.”

THE BIG E: With verbs of the five senses, use “good,” not “well.” Things can look good, feel good, sound good, taste good, and smell good.

Third quarter earnings look good.

The carne asada burrito tasted good.

Use “good” and “bad” with feelings, too. You wouldn’t say “feel goodly” would you?

Olympic skater Joey Cheek should feel good about his donations.

Real, Really

In informal speech, people often use “real” and “really” interchangeably. Actually, the two words do different jobs.

“Real” is usually an adjective.

Is that a real Rolex watch? (Adjective: describes “Rolex.”)

Miss Piggy should have run for president. (Not, should of—see here.)

“Really” is usually an adverb.

Marie really loves tap dancing. (Adverb: modifies the verb “loves.” How does she love tap dancing? She really loves tap dancing.)

These strawberries taste really good. (Adverb: modifies the adjective “good.” How good do the strawberries taste? Really good.)

TIP: Overusing “really” can turn the word into a filler. (See fillers.)

“There’s Tanya, that really smart woman we really want to hire. Really!”

Cut some “reallys” and use stronger adverbs or adjectives.

The Fix:

“There’s Tanya, that exceptionally bright woman we really hope to hire. She’s perfect for the job.”

Sure, Surely

“Sure” is an adjective.

The Rams’ Marshall Faulk was a sure bet to win MVP in 2000. (Adjective: modifies the noun “bet.”)

“Surely” is an adverb.

The pack mule walked surely down the steep trail. (Adverb: modifies the verb “walked.”)

Surely you jest! (Adverb: Modifies the verb “jest.”)

In informal speech, you’ll hear, “She sure likes iguanas.” In professional settings, avoid using “sure” for “surely.”

Right

You surely made a great speech, Mayor Rodriguez.

Wrong

You sure made a great speech, Mayor Rodriguez.

? Why?

Think of “truly” for “surely.” The adverb “surely” answers the question “how?” How did he make the speech? Surely (or truly).

Ann has written a novel. (Not, has wrote or has wroten—see here.)

Usual, Usually

“Usual” is an adjective.

Detective Andy Sipowicz rounded up the usual suspects. (Adjective: describes “suspects.”)

TIP: The phrase “as usual” is an idiom, meaning “as commonly happens.”

As usual, we ate popcorn and Red Vines during the movie.

“Usually” is an adverb.

Dean Koontz usually writes suspense novels. (Adverb: modifies “writes” and answers the question “when?” When does he write suspense novels? Usually.)

Tight, Tightly

“Tight” is an adjective. It describes a noun: a tight knot.

“Tightly” is an adverb. It tells “how”: coiled tightly.

THE BIG E: Some verbs suggest closing or constricting: tie, close, hold, shut, or squeeze. The word “tight” can follow such a verb and act as an adverb.

sit tight

hold tight

sleep tight

ADVERSE, AVERSE

“Adverse” (ad´ verse) means “not favorable,” while “averse” (uh verse´) means “reluctant or opposed.”

The guide canceled our kayak excursion due to adverse weather conditions.

Because snails eat Chris’s flowers, she is not averse to eating escargots.

ADVERTISING RULE-BREAKERS (See adverb pitfalls; got, have; and homonyms.)

Ad writers need pithy, colloquial expressions to make ads work. The goal is to create snappy messages that make a point and get people’s attention. Advertising space is limited and costly, so ads must be catchy and clever, even if they break grammar rules. But sometimes, such ads make bloopers appear to be correct.

Cory and I use gargoyles for garden gnomes. (Not, Cory and me—see here.)

Adjective Rule-Breakers

Here are some examples of “ad speak”:

Fly cheap!

Drive slow!

Act quick!

Technically, these should be adverbs—“cheaply,” “slowly,” “quickly”—because these words tell how to fly, drive, or act.

Headline: Cook Organic, Think Holistic.

“Organic” and “holistic” are adjectives. To modify “cook” and “think,” you need adverbs that tell how: “organically” and “holistically.”

Pronoun Rule-Breakers (See pronouns.)

Ad: My Happy Cow Ice Cream and me were alone.

“My Happy Cow Ice Cream and me” is a compound subject. Change the objective pronoun “me” to the subjective pronoun “I.”

My Happy Cow Ice Cream and I were alone.

TIP: Omit “My Happy Cow Ice Cream and.” You wouldn’t say, “Me was alone.” Say, “I was alone.”

Punctuation Bloopers

Punctuation errors also abound in ad copy.

Ad: Best Doctor’s in the Business

“Doctors” is plural, not possessive. Don’t use apostrophes to pluralize.

TV show: Who Wants to Be a Millionaire

A question mark should follow “Millionaire.” It’s a question, not a statement.

Ad: A User Friendly Web Site for Your Business

The compound adjective “User-Friendly” comes before the noun “Web Site.” Use a hyphen.

ADVICE, ADVISE

“Advice” is a noun meaning “opinion or guidance.” “Advise” is a verb meaning “to give or offer advice.”

Alejandra needs your advice on raising orchids.

Ms. Linden advised the kindergarten parents to “read to your bunnies.”

I saw the Doo-Dah Parade on Oprah yesterday. (Not, seen—see here.)

AFFECT, EFFECT

“Affect” and “effect” have distinct meanings.

Affect

Think of “affect” as a verb when you mean “to influence.”

Pesticides negatively affect creatures living deep in the ocean.

Did apathetic voters affect the election?

As a noun, “affect” is a term used by psychologists:

Art’s sad affect brightened when he heard, “Surprise! Happy birthday!”

(Emphasize the first syllable: af´ fekt.)

Effect

Think of “effect” as a verb when you mean “to bring about.”

The new CEO effected sweeping changes at Swizzlesticks.com.

As a noun, “effect” means “result.”

Hawaii’s balmy climate has a relaxing effect on tourists.

(Say, “eh fekt´,” not “ee´ fekt.”)

MNEMONIC (MEMORY AID): “Affect” is usually a verb. “Effect” is usually a noun—remember the phrase “Now in effect.” This sounds a lot like “noun-effect” and can help you remember “effect” for its job as a noun.

AFFLUENT, EFFLUENT

“Affluent” (af´ loo ent) means “financially comfortable,” while “effluent” (ef´ loo ent) is the liquid from waste pipes or sewers.

There are not enough appetizers. (Not, There is or There’s [there is]—see here.)

Shaker Heights is an affluent neighborhood.

Dead goldfish often enter the effluent stream by way of the toilet.

Don’t switch these two words. Once, in a column about a wastewater treatment plant, an overly diligent copy editor incorrectly changed every “effluent” to “affluent,” with startling results:

The affluent swished through the grates into the holding tank.

AGREEMENT (See collective nouns; number; and person.)

Spouses, opposing politicians, and other pairings don’t always have to agree. (Fortunately!) But in the world of grammar, specific words must agree with other words. Here’s how:

Pronoun-Noun Agreement

(See nouns, and pronouns.)

Pronouns must agree in person (first, second, or third), number (singular or plural), and gender with the nouns they replace.

Former football star Refrigerator Perry (noun) likes his (pronoun) new job as a bricklayer.

Right

Entertainers are performers. They play to the crowd.

Wrong

An entertainer is a performer. They play to the crowd.

? Why?

Pronouns must agree with their subjects. “Entertainers” is plural: “They” play. “An entertainer” is singular: “He” or “she” plays.

It’s revolting! (Not, Its—see here.)

Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement

Which “she” is Dagwood’s son talking about? Kelly or Britney? If your reader is confused by which person your pronoun stands for, you have—in Grammarspeak—a “pronoun reference problem.” Be sure each pronoun you use refers to the closest noun before it.

A pronoun takes the place of a noun. The closest noun that comes before a pronoun is called its antecedent: literally, “what comes before.” Pronouns must agree with their antecedents in person and number.

The world’s Garlic Capital is Gilroy, California (singular noun). You’ll smell it (singular pronoun) miles away.

The guys (plural noun) met their (plural noun) dates at the mixer.

Indefinite Pronoun–Pronoun Agreement (See gender-inclusive language.)

Right

Everybody must build his or her own sand castle.

Wrong

Everybody must build their own sand castle.

? Why?

“Everybody” is singular, even though it may sound plural.

To agree, the pronoun following “everybody” must also be singular. If it’s a co-ed sand castle event, use “his or her.”

It used to be that the pronoun “his” covered both males and females. Today, people recognize the power of language and acknowledge females with the use of “his or her.”

Another fix is to use plural nouns instead of indefinite pronouns.

All contestants must build their own sand castles.

You’re our hero, President Carter. (Not, Your—see here.)

DID YOU KNOW? Some usage experts are also recognizing the plural “their” with the singular “everyone” and “everybody,” as used in the wrong example above, to avoid the awkward “his or her.” The Grammar Patrol recommends sticking with singular-singular or plural-plural forms for agreement.

Subject-Verb Agreement (See predicate nouns.)

Verbs must agree with their subjects in person and number.

Right

Teri makes awesome bacon pie.

Wrong

Teri make awesome bacon pie.

? Why?

The subject, “Teri,” is third person singular. To check which verb form to use, replace “Teri” with the pronoun “she.” Say, “She makes.” Add s to “make” in the third person singular form. (See verbs).

Right

The first Latin Grammy Awards were held in Los Angeles.

Wrong

The first Latin Grammy Awards was held in Los Angeles.

? Why?

The subject, “Latin Grammy Awards” is plural. Use the plural verb “were” to match the plural “awards.” If it were “Latin Grammy Awards ceremony,” you’d use the singular “was” to match the singular “ceremony.”

TIP: When a verb is hidden in a contraction, like “there’s” (for “there is”), remember the rules of agreement. Don’t say, “There’s Popsicles in the freezer.” That means, “There is Popsicles.” Say, “There are Popsicles” (often shortened to “There’re Popsicles” in casual speech). This applies to other contractions, such as “where’s” for “where is.”

Agreement with a Compound Subject

In sentences with a compound subject (two or more nouns joined by the conjunction “and”), the verb must be plural.

Red, white, and blue (compound subject) (plural verb) are the colors of the American flag. (They are.)

Siegfried and Roy (compound subject) (plural verb) attract huge crowds in Las Vegas. (They attract.)

Where is it? (Not, Where’s it at?—see here.)

THE BIG E: If the compound subject is a thing or a unit, make the verb singular.

Romeo and Juliet (compound subject) (singular verb) is by William Shakespeare.

(Why? Romeo and Juliet is one play. Use a singular verb.)

If you’re puzzled about compound subjects joined by “or,” see coordinating conjunctions.

ALLITERATION

Alliteration is the repetition of letters or sounds in words that are close together.

ten tall trumpeters    classy, competent, and cool

Effective in both poetry and prose, alliteration loses its allure with overuse.

Billy Bob bought beer for baseball buddies at Bubba’s Bar.

ALLUDE, ELUDE

“To allude” is “to refer to indirectly.” “To elude” is “to escape or avoid by daring or cunning.”

The con artist alluded to riches to be gained from a hot new dot-com.

The cat burglar eluded the police.

ALTAR, ALTER

An “altar” (a noun) is a table used in religious ceremonies. “To alter” (a verb) is “to change or adjust.”

The bride and groom cartwheeled away from the altar.

Who but Superman can alter the tide of fate?

AMONG, BETWEEN (See objective pronouns; phrasal verbs; and prepositions.)

Grammar guides used to call for using the preposition “between” with two people or things, and using the preposition “among” with more than two.

between dawn and dusk    among the four bass players

Frankenstein arrived with him and a werewolf. (Not, he—see here.)

While this rule is relaxing, do use “between” in one-to-one or direct relationships.

Choose a number between six and fifteen.

Oli’s life is a balancing act between work and tae kwon do.

Use “among” when the relationship is less specific, broader.

Divide the kumquats among the neighbors.

Among the many descendants of Johann Sebastian Bach, four became musicians.

When using “between,” which suggests two items, use “and,” not “or,” to connect the two words:

My fiancé said I could choose between Fiji and Fargo for our honeymoon. (Not, between Fiji or Fargo.)

TIP: “Amongst” is out of date. Don’t use “amongst” unless you are rewriting the Bible or some other ancient tome. (Likewise, avoid “whilst,” “amidst,” and “unbeknownst.”)

AMOUNT, NUMBER (See fewer, less.)

The words “amount” and “number” are easily confused. Use “amount” when referring to a quantity. Use “number” with things you can count.

After shoveling manure, Jasper needed a massive amount (not number) of cologne.

Mike and Greg can eat a larger amount (not number) of mashed potatoes than Paul Bunyan.

Tammy Belle had a number (not amount) of things to buy at the Piggly Wiggly.

Unfortunately, Dudley had consumed a large number (not amount) of prunes.

AMPERSAND

Some people call the ampersand ( & ) the “fancy ‘and.’ ” You see this symbol in names of companies, such as Lee & Low Books, Quick & Reilly, and Procter & Gamble. Names of law firms often include an ampersand and skip the serial comma: Olson, Noll & Drury. (There’s also Dewey, Cheetham & Howe, the infamous law firm touted by NPR’s zany Car Guys, Click and Clack.)

In writing, don’t use an ampersand as a shortcut for “and.” The same goes for book titles. Write Python and Anaconda, not Python & Anaconda.

DID YOU KNOW? Ampersands won’t work in either email or Internet addresses. For Internet access, Lee & Low Books becomes www.leeandlow.com. Barnes & Noble becomes www.barnesandnoble.com.

ANACHRONISM, ACRONYM (See acronyms.)

An anachronism (eh nak´ kro nizm) is a chronological error, a mismatch in time. It means an implausible event that usually refers to an earlier era, such as Cleopatra having a Web site or William the Conqueror hopping into his private jet.

An acronym is an abbreviation that can be said as a word: WAC for Women’s Army Corps.

ANALOGY (See metaphors, and similes.)

Analogies compare objects or people, often with similar features. In speech or writing, analogies can help illustrate or describe.

Dr. Au made an analogy between a stomach and a food processor.

Beverly compared her high-strung client to a spirited racehorse.

AND, BUT

Remember the old grammar rule: “Never start a sentence with a conjunction”? Today, it’s perfectly acceptable to begin sentences with “and,” “but,” or other conjunctions like “for,” “or,” or “nor,” especially for quick emphasis. (No comma follows “and” or “but” when used at the beginning of a sentence.)

The Boston Pops’s Keith Lockhart loves conducting. And it shows.

Painters don’t dress up when they work. But why would they?

ANECDOTE, ANTIDOTE

An anecdote is a short tale about an event, often funny. An antidote relieves or counteracts.

Colleen entertains better than I. (Not, me—see here.)

Right

Today, a crystal ball seems the only antidote to economic woes.

Wrong

Today, a crystal ball seems the only anecdote to economic woes.

? Why?

While the laughter of a funny tale (“anecdote”) might cheer you up, don’t try it as the remedy (“antidote”) for your money troubles.

ANXIOUS, EAGER

“Anxious” means “worried or distressed.” Think of the word “anxiety.” “Eager” is “keenly interested, impatiently longing.”

I’m anxious about my test score. (worried)

I’m eager to find out my test score. (keenly interested)

TIP: “Anxious” is usually followed by “for” or “about.” “Eager” is usually followed by “to.”

ANYWAY, ANYWAYS (See substandard words.)

“Anyway” means “in any case” or “in any way whatever.” “Anyways” is substandard. Avoid it.

I tried the rattlesnake meat anyway.

APOSTROPHES (See contractions, and possessives.)

Are our children learning? (Not, Is—see here.)

Apostrophes ( ’ ) do several jobs. Use apostrophes:

To replace missing letters in contractions or surnames.

do + not = don’t

you + are = you’re

would + not = wouldn’t

Rosie O’Donnell is a champion for children’s rights. (The apostrophe replaces the letter f in “of”—“of Donnell.”)

To replace missing numerals or letters.

The class of ’05 [2005]

Newspaper headline: “Ol’ Coots Still Have Right Stuff in Space Cowboys”

To show possession.

Nouns show possession or ownership with the addition of an apostrophe.

an astronaut’s view of earth

Janelle’s favorite flowers

DID YOU KNOW? The top two apostrophe bloopers are switching the pairs “it’s” and “its” and “your” and “you’re.” “It’s” and “you’re” are contractions. “Its” and “your” are possessive pronouns.

Wrong

The Yacht Club held it’s yearly regatta. (Should be the possessive “its.”)

Wrong

Billboard: Slow down unless your planning to become a hood ornament. (Should be the contraction “you’re,” for “you are.”)

To form plurals of lowercase letters.

Mind your p’s and q’s.

Dot your i’s and cross your t’s.

To form plurals of abbreviations with periods or abbreviations formed with capitals if the meaning is unclear without the apostrophe.

M.A.’s

Ph.D.’s

SOS’s

(SOS would read “SOSs” without the apostrophe.)

The feisty jockey’s nickname is “Spitfire.” (Not, “Spitfire”.—see here.)

DID YOU KNOW? It used to be that you routinely showed plurals of numbers and abbreviations with an apostrophe. Times are changing. Today, if the meaning is clear, the plurals of dates, numbers, and combinations of capital letters do not require an apostrophe, though some people do still use them.

Steam changed the world in the 1800s (not 1800’s).

Save all 1099s (not 1099’s) for preparing your income tax return.

We tried three ATMs (not ATM’s).

Likewise, IPOs, CEOs, JPEGs, and PDFs.

Apostrophe Don’ts

Do not use apostrophes to form plurals of nouns.

balloons (not balloon’s)

the Smiths (not the Smith’s)

Do not use apostrophes to make pronouns possessive. (See pronouns, Chart 3.)

Resist the urge to slip apostrophes into pronouns just to prove you know that apostrophes are used to make nouns possessive. Never use these forms:

her’s

our’s

it’s

your’s

their’s

Pronouns have specific forms that show possession: my, your, her, his, its, our, their. These are the correct possessive pronouns:

hers

ours

its

yours

theirs

TIP: Beware! Don’t ever write “its’.” The apostrophe never goes at the end of “its.”

Yours are the best photos of the shuttle liftoff.

I ordered the pickled beets—the oxtail omelette was hers.

I traded my car for theirs.

Take it from the Grammar Patrol. Do not put an apostrophe in the possessive word “its.” “It’s” is never a possessive pronoun. Use “it’s” only when you mean the contraction “it is.” We’ll say it again, but this four-word mnemonic (memory aid) works: Possessive “its” never splits!

Florists take romance seriously. (Not, serious—see here.)

THE BIG E: Dare we mention one teensy exception? The pronoun “one” is indefinite, so you do add ’s to show possession: one’s.

When choosing a mate, one must hold to one’s standards.

ONE LAST APOSTROPHE TIP: Ninety-nine percent of the time, you’ll see apostrophes in contractions or to show possession. In rare cases, you use apostrophes to make nouns plural if your reader would be confused without the ’s.

For instance, when you write the plural of “do and don’t” as “dos and don’ts,” the meaning of “dos” is clear—it’s the plural of the word “do.” But if the word “dos” appears alone and without the apostrophe, it could be confusing. It could be read as DOS (rhymes with “boss”) for “disk operating system” or “dos” (rhymes with “shoes”) for the plural of “do.” When the word “dos” appears alone, an apostrophe makes it clearer: Jen and John said their “I do’s” in February.

APPOSITIVES

Think of appositives as renamers: nouns or noun phrases that describe a noun or pronoun.

Oscar de la Hoya, boxing’s singing Golden Boy, has a match this Saturday.

The appositive “boxing’s singing Golden Boy” describes, or renames, the proper noun “Oscar de la Hoya.”

Nonessential Appositives

When appositives follow the noun or pronoun they describe, use commas to separate them from the rest of the sentence. Such appositives set off information that is not essential (nonessential) to the sense of the sentence. (In Grammarspeak, “nonrestrictive.”)

Kit Kat, Andrea’s beloved cat, rules the house. (Kit Kat still rules the house, whether he belongs to Andrea or not.)

Nikki Giovanni, a highly regarded poet, speaks at Harvard today.

You may also use em dashes or parentheses to set the appositive apart.

Pearl—the Koemptgens’ pet squirrel—stuffs peanuts in her cheeks.

Montreal (Canada’s second largest city) is cold in the winter.

Café Flour Power showcased its new torte. (Not, it’s—see here.)

Essential Appositives

When the appositive restricts or limits the noun it renames, use no commas. These appositive phrases are needed (essential). They give specific meaning to the words they describe. Often, essential appositives come before the noun they are describing. (In Grammarspeak, these appositives are “restrictive”: They restrict the meaning of the noun.)

The romantic comedy (appositive) Pretty Woman (noun) made Julia Roberts famous.

The late blues singer (appositive) Alberta Hunter (noun) sang that song.

The thriller movie (appositive) The Bone Collector (noun) gave Marco nightmares.

Appositives with Family Names

The wicket gets stickier when it comes to family members. (Why aren’t we surprised?) Let’s assume you have three brothers.

My brother George adores artichokes.

If you just said, “My brother likes artichokes,” without George’s name, we wouldn’t know which of your three brothers loves artichokes. (The information is essential, so there’s no comma.)

Now, imagine you have one sister.

My sister, Betty, bakes great pumpkin pies.

You could say, “My sister bakes great pumpkin pies,” without the word “Betty,” because we know who you mean, even without her name. The name “Betty” is nonessential, so it’s enclosed in commas. (If you had other sisters, you’d need to name the pumpkin pie expert: The name would be essential.)

APPRAISE, APPRISE

“To appraise” is “to set a value on.” “To apprise” is “to inform.”

Lou appraised the Lionel train sets.

The captain apprised the romance cruise passengers of rough seas ahead.

Ted and Tisha’s van was stolen. (Not, Ted’s and Tisha’s—see here.)

ARTICLES (See percent, percentage.)

The words “the,” “a,” and “an” are articles. They work as adjectives, modifying nouns. Their pronunciation changes depending on the word that follows the article.

The

“The” is a definite article: It points to a specific noun.

Pronounce “the” as “thuh” before words that start with a consonant sound.

the (“thuh”) theater

the (“thuh”) Monopoly game

the (“thuh”) beach ball

Pronounce “the” as “thee” before words that start with a vowel sound.

the (“thee”) inchworm

the (“thee”) eight ball

the (“thee”) honor (You hear the vowel sound of the o, not the unvoiced beginning h.)

the (“thee”) Olympic games

A or An?

The words “a” and “an” are indefinite articles: They are general, not specific.

a hotel in France

an uncle

Bill’s and Alma’s tubas collided. (Not, Bill and Alma’s—see here.)

Use “a” before words or abbreviations that start with a consonant sound.

a mango

a kangaroo

a historian (Pronounce the h.) (See historic, historical.)

a Lexus

a YMCA fund-raiser

a ukulele (It starts with a “y” sound—a consonant.)

Pronounce “a” as “uh,” unless you are emphasizing.

“I said you could have

a cookie!” shouted Jessica. (Jessica meant one cookie, not six. The a rhymes with “day.”)

Use “an” before words that start with a vowel sound.

an iMac

an umbrella

an ostrich egg

an attaché case

an August moon

an emperor penguin

Also use “an” with words beginning with a consonant that makes a vowel sound.

an hour (You hear the vowel sound of the o, not the beginning h.)

With abbreviations, use “an” if the first letter has a vowel sound.

an FBI agent (but a Federal Bureau of Investigation agent)

an NCTE member (but a National Council of Teachers of English member)

an SASE (but a self-addressed stamped envelope)

an RSVP card (but a response card)

“A” and “The” before the Word “Number”

When the article “a” appears before the singular noun “number,” use a plural verb.

A (article) number of Dallas Cowboys fans have (plural verb) season tickets. (They have.)

When “the” appears before the word “number,” use a singular verb.

Shania Twain’s new album is hot; the (article) number sold is 26 million. (It is.) (singular verb)

Sabah helps whoever calls. (Not, whomever—see here.)

AS, LIKE (See metaphors; prepositions; similes.)

Life is like a box of chocolates.

—Forrest Gump

“As” and “like” are both prepositions. They compare one thing to another, forming a simile. What follows “like” or “as” is the object of the preposition. “As” can also be a conjunction.

“As” and “Like” as Prepositions

glamorous as (preposition) a movie star (object of a preposition)

scary as (preposition) a black widow spider (object of a preposition)

ugly as (preposition) green slime (object of a preposition)

fits like (preposition) a glove (object of a preposition)

sounded like (preposition) a politician (object of a preposition)

moves like (preposition) a dancer (object of a preposition)

“As” as a Conjunction

Besides working as a preposition, “as” plays another role: as a conjunction, a connector. When used as a conjunction, a clause, containing a subject and a verb, follows “as.”

“Kick it up a notch!” says Emeril Lagasse as he adds hot peppers (conjunction) (clause).

As the World Turns (conjunction) (clause) is Nan’s favorite show.

(In the show’s title, “as” is a conjunction introducing the clause “the world turns.”)

Dirk talked finances as I trimmed his toenails (conjunction) (clause).

The Lotto jackpot was bigger than expected. (Not, more bigger—see here.)

Don’t use “like” as a conjunction.

Right

As I said, martial arts guru Billy Blanks is an exercise fanatic.

Wrong

Like I said, martial arts guru Billy Blanks is an exercise fanatic.

? Why?

“As I said” is a clause that starts with the conjunction “as.” “Like” is a preposition, not a conjunction: It can’t introduce a clause. Instead, use “as.”

TIP: Use the preposition “like” with nouns and noun phrases. Use the conjunction “as” with verbs and clauses. (Conjunctions introduce clauses, and clauses contain verbs.) Don’t follow the preposition “like” with a verb. Instead of, “I voted like I did last time,” say, “I voted as I did last time.” Use “as” because the verb “did” follows it.

AS IF, AS THOUGH

“As if” and “as though” are interchangeable. Either phrase can signal that a clause follows.

Bill Cosby acted as if he knew me (clause)!

It looks as though juggling lessons are in your future (clause).

TIP: The term “as if” can also usher in the subjunctive. (See subjunctive mood.)

Right

Trixie bought shoes as if she were Imelda Marcos.

Wrong

Trixie bought shoes as if she was Imelda Marcos.

? Why?

Trixie is not the shoe-loving Imelda Marcos. Don’t write “as if she was.” Use the subjunctive “were.”

ASTERISKS (See bullets.)

“Asterisk” is Greek for “little star.” An asterisk ( * ) by a word, phrase, graph, or chart leads readers to additional information.

Your Pekingese terrifies my Rottweiler. (Not, You’re —see here.)

Stock ownership in home-repair companies has risen 7 percent yearly over the decade* Do-it-yourselfers and “fixer” homes are the driving forces…

*With the exception of a 10 percent drop in 2001.

The trickiest thing about an asterisk is how to say it. Say, “aster” (like the flower) plus “isk,” not “ick.” “Aster-isk.” Think, “risk an asterisk.”

TIP: In advertising, contracts, and credit card agreements, asterisks often lead you to must-read (but often unreadable!) details found in the fine print.

ATTAIN, OBTAIN

“To attain” is “to accomplish or gain,” or “to reach through time.” “To obtain” is “to get or acquire.”

Tomás has attained the ultimate in wood-working accolades.

To obtain entry to the estate, Jason had to get past four pit bulls.

A WHILE, AWHILE

Both “a while” and “awhile” mean “for a short time.” The difference is easy. Use the single word “awhile” unless it follows a preposition—in that case, make it two: “a while.”

Let’s chat awhile.

Let’s chat for a while (preposition).

Where are my Ripplin’ Red lures? (Not, Where’s [where is]—see here.)

B

BESIDE, BESIDES

The preposition “beside” means “at the side” or “near.”

Kalie sat beside Bill at the Square Lake picnic.

The preposition “besides” means “also,” “in addition to,” “except for,” or “other than.”

Besides her sister Brianna, Marissa has two brothers, Johnny and Mike.

BOLDFACE

Like electric green hair, boldface stands out. Avoid using boldface in everyday writing or regular text. Your words, not the typeface, should make your point. Graphic designers find boldface useful for mastheads, headlines, titles, headings, and subheadings.

Boldface can also make computer commands stand out.

To force-quit a Macintosh application that appears to be frozen, press command + option + escape.

BOTH, EACH

The indefinite pronouns “both” and “each” can be used as adjectives or pronouns.

Both

“Both” applies to two people or things. Look for a plural verb with “both,” whether it’s an adjective or a pronoun.

Both (adjective) Steve Jobs and Donald Duck like (plural verb) bow ties. (They like.)

When Leticia and Malik do aerobics, both (pronoun) wear (plural verb) sequins. (They wear.)

Each

“Each” applies to one person or thing: Think “each one” or “every single one.” When “each” is used as a pronoun, use a singular verb.

Each (adjective) Rose Bowl float is (singular verb) unique. (It is.)

Each (pronoun) gets (singular verb) a Tootsie Roll. (He or she gets.)

It’s time for Liz and me to build a snowman. (Not, I—see here.)

If the pronoun “each” appears after a plural noun, make the verb plural.

The Bearskin Lodge cabins (plural noun) each (pronoun) have (plural verb) a fireplace. (They have.)

BOTH, EACH OTHER

Using the phrases “both” and “each other” in the same sentence is redundant. Instead of, “Both men congratulated each other on their fishing skills,” say, “The men congratulated each other on their fishing skills.”

Right

Brian Williams mentioned both of you.

Wrong

Brian Williams mentioned the both of you.

? Why?

Don’t use the article “the” with “both.”

BRACKETS (See also italics.)

Brackets ( [ ] ) enclose added information or an explanation. Use brackets:

To enclose sic, meaning “thus” or “so.” What sic tells the reader is, “this is not our error; it was written this way.”

The student wrote, “President Kennedy was assassinated in 1964 [sic].” (The correct year is 1963.)

Sven’s cat Mugsie prefers makral [sic] to anchovies. (Should be “mackerel.”)

To add omitted information in a direct quotation.

“I’m building my Fairmont [West Virginia] mansion on Pinchgut Hollow Road,” gushed Daisy May.

To clarify.

Westley told his true love [Buttercup], “As you wish.”

To show parenthetical information inside parentheses.

Fine and Josephson could only laugh when reviewers misspelled their first grammar title as Nitty-Gritty Grammer. (Nitty-Gritty Grammar [Ten Speed Press, 1998]).

Snails-to-Go is closing its doors forever. (Not, it’s—see here.)

BRING, TAKE

We dedicate this section to Tom and Ray Magliozzi, NPR’s venerable Car Guys, who dispense equal parts humor and automotive advice. “Bring” and “take” remain a challenge for these nutty hosts.

“Bring” and “take” are often mistakenly switched. “Bring” shows action toward the speaker. “Take” shows action away from the speaker. Use the “come, go” analogy. “Bring” is like “come.” “Take” is like “go.” Instead of, “Bring ear plugs to next week’s All-State Drummer Competition,” say, “Take ear plugs.” (You’re not at the Drummer Competition; you’re just reading about it. You will “go” to the competition; you’re not there now.)

Right

Take this toilet paper to the outhouse.

Wrong

Bring this toilet paper to the outhouse.

? Why?

The person making the request is not in the outhouse at the moment. Use “take.”

Usually the error comes in using “bring” for “take.” You wouldn’t hear, “Please take me some eggs.”

If your toaster breaks, take (not bring) it in for service. (You’re not at the toaster repair shop. “Go,” not “come,” to the shop.)

Chelsea takes (not brings) Prissy to see the vet weekly. (She’s not at the vet’s now. “Go,” not “come,” to the vet’s.)

I’m taking (not bringing) a speech draft to Senator Feinstein. (You’re not with her at the moment. “Go,” not “come,” to her office.)

Jeeves will bring (not take) the Jaguar here after the tea. (Jeeves’s action is toward the tea drinkers. Jeeves will “come here,” not “go there.”)

TIP: Ask, “Are you there?” or “Am I there?” If so, use “bring.” If not, use “take.”

BRITICISMS (BRITISHISMS)

We still use words or phrases borrowed from the British, but in the United States, their meanings, spellings, or usage may have changed. These Briticisms (Brit´ ih siz imz) can be intriguing and give insight into our language.

The effects of Sadie’s fifteen-bean soup last for hours. (Not, affects—see here.)

Word Meanings

American

British

apartment

flat

cookie

biscuit

elevator

lift

French fries

chips

private boarding school

public school

spool of thread

reel of cotton

subway

underground, tube

thumbtack

drawing pin

truck

lorry

sweater

jumper

Pronunciation

Pronunciation differs, too. Examples:

American

British

schedule

(sked´ jool)

(shed´ yool)

leisure

(leezh´ er)

(lehzh´ er)

Punctuation

In American English, commas and periods appear inside the quotation (“ .” or “,”); in British English, they appear outside (“ ”. or “ ”,). Other British variations: a greater use of hyphens, unspaced ellipses, and the use of single quotes for double quotes and vice versa.

Spelling

The most notorious British spellings are the final re and our and the doubled l. In British English, it’s theatre, humour, and cancelled; in American English, theater, humor, and canceled. In British English, it’s aeroplane, armour, centre, harbour, honour, and traveller; in American English, the words are spelled airplane, armor, center, harbor, honor, and traveler.

Another difference is the British use of c for s and s for c or z, in words like dramatise and licence. The American words are dramatize and license.

There are also variations in English in Australia. Some samples:

American

Australian

barbecue grill

barbie

friend

mate

trash can

wheely bin

Her majesty ordered embossed stationery. (Not, stationary—see here.)

BULLETS (See asterisks.)

In lists, bullets (•) highlight important points and let readers scan material quickly. Introduce a bulleted list with a colon.

There are different ways to format bullets. Whichever method you choose, be consistent. Don’t mix formats within a single list or document.

In this example, each bullet starts with an order, the imperative mood of the verb—“make,” “be,” and “put”:

• Make each point parallel.

• Be concise.

• Put a period at the end of each statement if starting with capitals or if the bulleted items complete a sentence begun above the list.

• Make bulleted lists easier to read, indenting them slightly farther to the right than your paragraph indentation (as shown).

Another approach is to use semicolons at the end of each statement, add “and” before the last item on the list, and end the bulleted list with a period. Some lists with headers have no punctuation marks after bulleted items.

Classic Clothing Labels:

• Gucci

• Celine

• Loewe

• Louis Vuitton

• Ann Taylor

C

CALVARY, CAVALRY

Calvary (Cal´ vuh ree—say the l) is a historic site near Jerusalem. The word “cavalry” (cav´ uhl ree) means military troops who ride on horseback or in motorized vehicles. Be careful pronouncing these two.

Kathleen made a pilgrimage to Calvary.

Major Poulet called in the cavalry.

Things look bad on the Fashion Fest runway. (Not, badly—see here.)

CAN, MAY

Can? May? There’s a difference.

Right

May I have that last raspberry cream truffle?

Wrong

Can I have that last raspberry cream truffle?

? Why?

“May” asks permission and expresses courtesy: “Is it all right with you if I take the last truffle?” (Yes, but Miss Manners would be greatly displeased.) “Can” expresses ability. (Of course it’s possible to take a truffle, but that’s not what you’re asking.)

I can throw the discus four hundred feet.

May I take you to the Sting concert?

DID YOU KNOW: When teamed with another verb, “may” also indicates possibility.

Baby Benjamin may talk soon.

CAPITALS

Use capital letters:

For the pronoun “I”: It is I.

To begin a sentence, unquoted or quoted.

Crimson paint spilled on the white carpet.

“One could do worse than be a swinger of birches,” is the last line of Robert Frost’s famous poem “Birches.”

“I have to lie down,” said Dagwood. (Not, lay—see here.)

For the first, last, and all other words—except prepositions, articles (“a,” “an,” “the”), conjunctions, and the “to” of infinitives—of titles of articles, books, journals, magazines, movies, plays, poems, and radio and television shows and series.

Article: “Ford SUV to Challenge Jeep Wrangler” (Note lowercase t on “to.”)

Book: No Such Thing as a Bad Day (Hamilton Jordan)

Journal: School Library Journal

Magazine: In Style (The preposition “in” is the first word in this title.)

Movie: Autumn in New York

Play: Two Gentlemen of Verona (William Shakespeare)

Poem: “Genie in a Jar” (Nikki Giovanni)

Radio and TV shows and series: Prairie Home Companion, Boston Legal

With proper nouns.

A second grader once told the Grammar Patrol that a proper noun is “a fancy noun that gets a capital.” He was exactly right. Proper nouns are specific, not general. Capitalize the first letter of proper nouns.

Proper nouns include:

The days of the week, months, and holidays; specific people; or groups, things, buildings, companies, organizations, and schools.

Sunday

August

Valentine’s Day

Johnny Mathis

Backstreet Boys

Bolshoi Ballet

Toyota Camry

Hotel Del Coronado

Hollywood Bowl

Pfizer

Amnesty International

Baseball Hall of Fame

DreamWorks

Stanford University

Elton John AIDS Foundation

Andrew Shue’s Do Something Foundation

THE BIG E: Sometimes artists break the capitalization rules. The name of singer k. d. lang appears without capitals. Until the mid-30s, poet Edward Estlin Cummings wrote his name as “e e cummings” (no capitals and no periods). Unconventional spelling and punctuation also marked his writing.

Bette plays better with decent clubs. (Not, more better—see here.)

Historical events, documents, or government programs.

Gettysburg Address

Persian Gulf War

Bicentennial

Emancipation Proclamation

Civil Rights Act of 1964

Medicare

Social Security Administration

People’s titles.

Capitalize civil, religious, military, and professional titles when they appear right before a person’s name. If the title follows the name, don’t capitalize the title. If a title appears without the name of a person, do not capitalize it.

• Civil titles

President Adams

John Adams, president of the United States the president of the United States

• Religious titles

Capitalization of titles varies among different religions and denominations. Some examples:

Rabbi Benno Scheinberg, the rabbi

the Reverend Grayson Clary

William Tully, rector of St. Bartholomew’s

• Military and professional titles

Chief of Surgery, Dr. Sujan Wong

Dr. Sujan Wong, chief of Surgery

General George S. Patton

Some titles, such as “Speaker of the House,” are always capitalized, with or without the person’s name. Use capitals for titles and nicknames for people whose names appear in popular culture.

Fans once called Britney Spears the “Queen of Teen.”

Names of companies and academic departments, even when they appear after a person’s title.

Jenni Prisk, president of Prisk Communication

Ron Josephson, professor of Foods and Nutrition

Gryffindor swept the Quidditch finals. (Not, sweeped —see here.)

Family names.

Aunt Ruth Nelson (but my aunt, Ruth Nelson)

Mother (but her mother, Gertrude Wigginton)

Grandfather Hope (but his paternal grandfather, Norman Hope)

Seasons.

Seasons are not capitalized: “summer,” “fall,” “winter,” “spring.”

In the summer, the Dowlers head for Hawaii.

In academic settings, when seasons denote specific semesters, use a capital letter:

Fall 2005

Summer 2006

Religions and holy books, holy days, and words for a Supreme Being.

Islam

Talmud

Judaism

Bible

Christianity

Koran

Passover

God

Christmas

Buddha

Ramadan

Allah

Geographic regions.

New England

the Pacific Northwest

the Far East

the South

Do not capitalize directions: 50 miles north of Atlanta.

Languages.

Mona speaks Farsi.

Instructions for this computer are in Japanese, English, German, and French.

Names of computer programs.

Adobe Acrobat

Internet Explorer

Flash

Microsoft Word

PowerPoint

Quicken

You’re camping in Antarctica? (Not, Your—see here.)

Book series and editions.

Capitalize titles of book series and editions. Use lowercase letters for the words “series” and “edition.”

Gary Paulsen’s Culpepper Adventure series

large-type Reader’s Digest edition

DID YOU KNOW? In naming eras or geologic time periods, don’t capitalize the word “era,” “period,” or “times.”

Jurassic era

medieval times (but the Middle Ages)

Tertiary period

CAREEN, CAREER

“To careen” is “to lurch or swerve; to tip to the side.” As a verb, “to career” is “to move at full speed.” (As a noun, “career” means “profession.”)

The Ferrari careened into the cantaloupe stand.

Lucky Day careered past Born to Win to take first place by a nose.

CASE (See pronouns.)

Nouns and pronouns have “case.” They can be subjective (in Grammarspeak, “nominative”), objective, or possessive. “Subjective” nouns and pronouns are used as subjects. “Objective” nouns and pronouns are used as the objects of verbs or prepositions. “Possessive” nouns and pronouns are used to show ownership. The case you use depends on the job the word does in a sentence.

CHOOSE, CHOSE

“Choose” is a present-tense verb meaning “to select or decide.” “Chose,” meaning “selected” or “decided,” is the past tense of “choose.” The past participle is “chosen.”

Last week, I had chosen fettuccine Alfredo.

Yesterday, I chose a banana split.

Today, I choose carrots.

Deedee and I saddled up. (Not, myself—see here.)

CLAUSES (See also conjunctions; phrases; and predicate.)

If you haven’t got anything nice to say about anybody, come sit next to me.

—Alice Roosevelt Longworth

Clauses can be independent or dependent. This famous quotation from Teddy Roosevelt’s irascible, eldest daughter has both a dependent and an independent clause.

A clause is a group of related words with both a subject and a predicate.

Independent Clauses

Independent clauses contain both a subject and a predicate and can stand on their own as complete sentences. No extra words or phrases are needed for readers to understand an independent clause: It forms a complete thought. (In Grammarspeak, independent clauses may be called “main clauses.”) Independent clauses make sense, even if they are only two words long.

People (subject) notice (predicate).

Here are some longer independent clauses:

I (subject) can get to work quickly (predicate).

The wolf (subject) howled at the moon (predicate).

Independent clauses are often linked with other clauses by conjunctions, such as “because,” “since,” “for,” and “but.”

I celebrated with cheese pizza because my cholesterol went down.

Dependent Clauses

Dependent clauses (in Grammarspeak, called “subordinate clauses”) contain a subject and a verb, but are not complete sentences. Words in a dependent clause give more information about a main clause. Dependent clauses cannot stand alone. They depend on a main clause to make sense.

Here are some dependent clauses:

when I take BART

which was shining brightly

what you wear

whoever hired Chris Erskine

Terry plays Boggle with Jeannie and me. (Not, I—see here.)

Dependent Clauses as Different Parts of Speech

Dependent clauses do different jobs. When combined with independent clauses, dependent clauses can act as adverbs, adjectives, nouns, or the objects of prepositions.

The independent and dependent clause examples on this page can be combined to create sentences like these:

When I take BART (dependent clause—adverb), I can get to work quickly (independent clause).

The wolf howled at the moon (independent clause), which was shining brightly. (dependent clause—adjective)

People notice (independent clause) what you wear (dependent clause—noun).

I tip my hat (independent clause) to whoever hired L.A. Times columnist Chris Erskine (dependent clause—object of preposition).

Clauses can also be essential (restrictive) or nonessential (nonrestrictive). (For tips on punctuating these clauses, see that, which, here.)

TIP: Don’t confuse dependent clauses with phrases. While dependent clauses do have both a subject and a predicate, phrases don’t have both.

CLICHÉS

Clichés are expressions that have been used so often they have become trite:

right as rain

black as night

pretty as a picture

cunning as a fox

bald as a billiard ball

neat as a pin

pearls of wisdom

roll off the tongue

smooth as butter

Avoid clichés like the plague! Find fresh ways to describe things.

COLLECTIVE NOUNS (See nouns.)

Collective nouns describe persons or things that act as a single unit. Here are some examples: assembly, audience, band, class, committee, corps, crew, crowd, faculty, family, flock, group, jury, nation, pair, panel, pod, press, series, set. A prepositional phrase with a plural object often follows the collective noun.

A pod of whales (collective noun)(prepositional phrase) swam past.

Lee showed us her mementos of Africa. (Not, momentos—see here.)

Collective nouns usually take singular verbs. To check your verb form, substitute the singular pronoun “it” for the collective noun.

The faculty (collective noun) votes (singular verb) tomorrow. (It votes.)

The crew (collective noun) dances (singular verb) a jig. (It dances.)

The Hughes family (collective noun) often travels (singular verb). (It travels.)

The flock (collective noun) of geese flies (singular verb) in perfect formation. (It flies.)

TIP: Corporations act like collective nouns, even if the company’s name is plural. Although a specific company may have many employees, you should refer to it as a single entity.

Merck (singular noun) manufactures (singular verb) a drug to treat osteoporosis. (It manufactures.)

Brinkley Brothers (singular noun) sells (singular verb) lottery tickets. (It sells.)

THE BIG E: Sometimes collective nouns don’t act as a unit. They take singular or plural verbs, depending on what follows. Use a singular verb if the collective noun is acting together as a group. Use a plural verb if group members act independently as individuals.

Singular:

The panel (collective noun) voted (singular verb) to fund the new stadium. (It voted.)

Plural:

The panel (collective noun) of doctors were (plural verb) not of one mind.

(Each doctor had a differing opinion. They were.)

Singular:

The couple (collective noun) wants (singular verb) matching “Born to Be Wild” tattoos. (It wants.)

Plural:

A couple (collective noun) of days are needed (plural verb) to distress my new jeans.

(They are needed.)

It sounds as if Chlöe loves singing. (Not, like—see here.)

These collective nouns are the most frequent switch-hitters: couple, majority, number, percent, press, and total. Let the words that follow collective nouns and the meanings of the sentences help you decide whether the verb is singular or plural.

COLONS

Colons ( : ) signal that information, an explanation, or a long quotation lies ahead. Put one space after a colon.

Flash from humorist Dave Barry: “A group of psychology researchers has made the breakthrough discovery that—prepare to be astounded—males and females are different.”

Use a colon:

After a business letter greeting.

Dear Mr. Spielberg:

To introduce a list.

That year, three names dominated U.S. track and field: Maurice Green, Michael Johnson, and Marion Jones.

Political campaigns are always the same: flag waving, baby smooching, and lofty speeches. (No capital on “flag.”)

Before an explanation.

Remember this Murphy’s Law: Any empty horizontal surface will be piled high within minutes.

With a long quotation.

Los Angeles Times columnist Roy Rivenberg made this observation in his article “The Bumbling Gourmet”: “Although I told my panel of reviewers that snarky comments would make this article funnier, they insisted everything was first-rate.”

Capitalize the first letter of a full quotation or of any complete sentence that follows a colon.

To show time.

Madame Solombra reads palms daily from 3:30 to 11:30 P.M.

Driver interviews at Cam-Mar Growers start at 8:30 A.M.

We have hardly any Tootsie Rolls left. (Not, don’t have hardly—see here.)

To indicate a subtitle of a book.

Mother Jones: Fierce Fighter for Workers’ Rights

Soujourner Truth: A Life, a Symbol

Do not use a colon:

After “such as.” (Do put a comma before “such as.”)

Courageous leaders, such as Desmond Tutu and Nelson Mandela, guided South Africa’s transition from apartheid. (Not, leaders: such as Desmond Tutu.)

Include life’s necessities, such as belly laughs, naps, and a spicy novel. (Not, necessities: such as belly laughs.)

Between a verb and its object.

Rodrigo danced (verb) the rumba, fox trot (direct object), and samba.

(Not, danced: the rumba.)

The three top teams were (verb) Michigan, Penn State, and Wisconsin (object complement).

(Not, top teams were: Michigan.)

Between a preposition and its object.

Send petty-cash memos to (preposition) Gates, Turner, and Trump (object of the preposition).

(Not, to: Gates.)

COMMAS

A comma ( , ) signals a pause, as if taking a breath. Put one space after a comma. Use this versatile punctuation mark:

To separate an introductory word or phrase from the rest of the sentence. (See conjunctions as adverbs.)

With introductory phrases, sources differ as to whether or not to use a comma. Some experts say to use a comma after one or two words; others say three or more. Sometimes the comma is needed for clarity.

Moreover, you can’t wear knee socks with a rhinestone gown.

Are stocks more risky than Blackjack? (Not, more riskier—see here.)

At first, Shanna thought Arturo looked like a Greek god.

After swimming laps, Evelyn took a shower.

As Tippi Hedren’s daughter, Melanie Griffith knew the Hollywood scene.

To indicate direct address, when someone is speaking to someone else.

Give me those See’s Candies right now, Arthur!

To signal a change of subject or action.

Lady Alona slew the dragon, polished her nails, then took a nap.

To separate two independent clauses joined by a conjunction.

Bernardo loved to eat, and his ample girth showed it.

To separate spoken words from the rest of the sentence.

“The camel ride to the pyramids begins at dawn,” our guide told us.

To separate two adjectives that modify the same noun. (See also compound adjectives.)

Ashley Judd has a spirited, friendly personality.

The automated, fast-moving assembly line outpaced the robot.

To separate words that signal that an example is coming.

Use a comma before (but not after) “such as” or “like” when a list with commas follows:

I love Thai food, such as pad thai, coconut soup, and spring rolls.

He feeds the large zoo animals, like elephants, rhinos, and hippos.

Use a comma before and after “as in,” “namely,” and “that is.”

Marty knows his food groups, as in, chocolate, ice cream, and cookies.

Two veteran interviewers, namely, Tim Russert and Larry King, ranked highly among listeners.

Use common sense in the wilderness, that is, don’t take risks.

The Mighty Ducks moved toward a winning season. (Not, towards—see here.)

To separate items in a series with serial commas. (See legal writing.)

A serial comma is one used before “and” or “or” in a series of more than two words.

The Gipsy Kings have roots in France, North Africa, Spain, and India.

Networking Ad: “The Best Way to Motivate, Entice, or Schmooze.”

Should you use serial commas? Sources differ. The Grammar Patrol likes serial commas for the clarity they provide. Although newspapers and magazines often don’t use serial commas, we recommend them in formal writing.

Don’t use a comma when the words “and” or “or” separate each item in a series.

My favorite ice cream flavors are Chocolate Heaven and Cherry Garcia and Chunky Monkey.

In names of law firms, serial commas are often omitted.

Bartholomew, Horton & Oobleck

The meaning is clear without the comma.

More Comma Clues

When an independent clause comes first, don’t use a comma to separate the independent clause from the dependent clause that follows. (See clauses.)

Right

Maria went along because Arnold was nominated for an Oscar.

Wrong

Maria went along, because Arnold was nominated for an Oscar.

? Why?

Dependent clauses often begin with conjunctions—“because,” “unless,” “while,” and others. In this sentence, the dependent clause “because Arnold was nominated …” is needed for the rest of the sentence to make sense. Don’t separate it with a comma. If the clauses were reversed, the comma would be needed. The long dependent clause now becomes an introductory clause.

Because Arnold was nominated for an Oscar, Maria went along.

Anna surveyed the building site. (Not, cite or sight—see here.)

Don’t use a comma between a subject and its verb.

Ad: How you look (subject), can depend (verb) on how you look on paper.

(Delete that comma!)

In American English, a comma never falls outside of quotation marks. The same goes for periods. (See quotation marks.)

COMMA SPLICE (See incomplete sentences.)

COMPARE, CONTRAST (See compare to, compare with, below.)

The verb “to compare” looks at likenesses and differences. “To contrast” looks at differences, often noting opposite qualities.

Let’s compare these two swimsuits.

Eddie’s chartreuse tie contrasts wildly with his purple shirt.

Students are often asked to “compare and contrast” two things. In fact, the word “compare” alone will do. When you compare one thing with another, you look at both likenesses and differences.

COMPARE TO, COMPARE WITH (See phrasal verbs.)

Use “compare to” to liken dissimilar items. “Compare to” is often figurative.

Frieda compared her husband’s snoring to a Harley at full throttle.

Use “compare with” to show contrast in like items: comparing how two things are both alike and different. “Compare with” is usually literal.

Compared with last month’s electric bill, this month’s was a disaster.

COMPARISONS (See also adjectives, and adverbs.)

“Mirror, mirror, on the wall, who’s the fairest of us all?”

Sorry, Evil Queen—Snow White’s the fairest in the land. She’s superlative.

Adjectives and some adverbs not only describe and modify; they can also compare. The degrees of comparison are positive (the basic form of the word), comparative (two things), and superlative (more than two).

King Schnozola is too timid for fencing. (Not, to—see here.)

Positive

Comparative

Superlative

beautiful

more beautiful

most beautiful

easy

easier

easiest

flexible

less flexible

least flexible

warm

warmer

warmest

Comparative Adjectives

Use the comparative form of an adjective to compare two things. To form the comparative, add an er ending, or add “more” or “less” to most one-syllable words:

young: younger or more/less young

wild: wilder or more/less wild

dense: denser or more/less dense

dark: darker or more/less dark

To Zelda, pole vaulting seemed safer (or more safe) than sky diving.

THE BIG E: Don’t add er to some one- or two-syllable words, like the informal adjective “fun.” Instead of “funner,” say, “more fun.”

more ancient (not “ancienter”)

more wrinkled (not “wrinkleder”)

With two-syllable words ending in y, drop the y and add er, or use “more” or “less” before the word.

silly: sillier, more/less silly

gaudy: gaudier, more/less gaudy

zany: zanier, more/less zany

muddy: muddier, more/less muddy

With words of three or more syllables, use “more” or “less” before the word.

less bountiful

more punctual

more intelligent

You can also modify the comparative form with the adverb “much.”

Pollack’s paintings were much sloppier (comparative) than those by Dalí.

THE BIG E: You can use the comparative form with the pronoun “other,” even when you mean more than two.

Cody’s bunny suit was cuter than the other costumes.

Do Nigel and he call that broom closet an office? (Not, Nigel and him—see here.)

Superlative Adjectives

Use the superlative form to compare more than two things.

San Francisco is the least affordable city in California.

To form the superlative, just add the ending est to most one-syllable and some two-syllable words, or add “most” or “least” before some two-syllable words. (Change an ending y to i if needed.)

fastest

messiest

silliest

most savvy

most sour

least athletic

Anna Kournikova was once the highest earner in pro tennis.

With words of three or more syllables, use “most” or “least.”

least dangerous

most beautiful

least vulnerable

THE BIG E: You can’t add est to some words, like the informal adjective “fun.” Instead of “funnest,” say, “most fun.”

Comparisons Using “Old” or “Young”

You need to know how many people or things are involved in order to decide whether to use er or est after words like “old” or “young.”

Camilla is the younger of the two sisters. (Two: comparative)

The Rio is the oldest of our six cars. (More than two: superlative)

The words “elder” and “eldest” are most often used to compare people, and usually indicate age or seniority. (But these are yielding to “older” and “oldest.”)

Our eldest son is president of Spin-Around Yo-Yos. (Three other sons also work in the business.)

Witch Hekkaba had her wart frozen off. (Not, froze—see here.)

Irregular Comparatives

Some adjectives are irregular in the comparative and superlative. Just as chameleons change color, irregular comparatives change form.

Positive

Comparative

Superlative

good

better

best

bad

worse

worst

Common Mistakes: Comparative and Superlative

Stay out of double trouble and avoid:

Double comparatives.

Right

Gambling is riskier (or more risky) than hang gliding.

Wrong

Gambling is more riskier than hang gliding.

? Why?

Don’t double up in the comparative. Gambling is either “riskier” or “more risky,” never “more riskier” than hang gliding. Use er or “more,” not both.

Double superlatives.

Right

The most swift (or swiftest) wide receiver of the 1990s was Jerry Rice.

Wrong

The most swiftest wide receiver of the 1990s was Jerry Rice.

? Why?

Don’t double up in the superlative. Jerry was either the “most swift” or “the swiftest” wide receiver. Use “most” or est, not both.

COMPLEMENT, COMPLIMENT

As a verb, “to complement” means “to supplement” or “to make complete.” As a noun, “complement” means “a supplement or a complete set.” A complement completes.

As a verb, “compliment” expresses praise; as a noun, a “compliment” is a praising remark or an expression of courtesy.

That polka-dotted scarf complements your striped clown outfit.

Harvey’s mom baked a full complement of Super Bowl snacks.

Mr. Dithers complimented the class on their dissection of sheep’s eyeballs.

Whom shall I call about this silverfish invasion? (Not, who—see here.)

The puppy got lavish compliments during Canine Companion training.

TIP: “Complementary” and “complimentary” are also commonly confused. Think of “complementary” as “completing” or “supplying needs or something lacking.”

Monet chose complementary paint colors.

“Complimentary” means “expressing or resembling a compliment” or “given free as a courtesy or to repay a favor.”

The carrot smoothies are complimentary.

COMPLEMENTS (See object complements, and subject complements.)

COMPOUND ADJECTIVES (See adjectives.)

COMPOUND NOUNS (See nouns.)

COMPOUND SENTENCES (See sentences.)

COMPOUND SUBJECTS (See subject.)

CONJUNCTIONS

Imagination is more important than knowledge.

—Albert Einstein

Conjunctions are connectors. (See the “than” in Albert Einstein’s quote.) Common conjunctions include after, also, although, and, as, because, but, even though, however, instead, nevertheless, or, otherwise, since, so, than, therefore, though, unless, until, when, while, and yet.

Some conjunctions have specific jobs. On the lists of conjunction types below, note that a conjunction may appear on more than one list.

QVC played a big role in her overdrawn account. (Not, roll—see here.)

Coordinating Conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions connect elements of equal rank: words to words, phrases to phrases, clauses to clauses, or sentences to sentences. The seven coordinating conjunctions are and, but, for, nor, or, so, and yet.

lacy shorts or (conjunction) silk boxers (word to word)

Buddy Holly’s glasses and (conjunction) Jim Croce’s lyrics (phrase to phrase)

I’ll make coffee so (conjunction) you won’t fall asleep. (clause to clause)

I got rid of my nose ring, but (conjunction) I kept my dreads. (sentence to sentence)

Tips on Compound Subjects Linked with “Or”

If a compound subject is made up of two singular words joined by “or,” use a singular verb.

Jocelyn or Vladamir (compound subject) orders (singular verb) the pizza each Friday. (She or he orders.)

If a compound subject is made up of two plural words joined by “or,” use a plural verb.

The bats or the vampires (compound subject) usually appear (plural verb) first. (They appear.)

Some compound subjects contain both singular and plural words. The word closest to the verb determines if the verb is singular or plural.

The trumpeters or the majorette (compound subject) leads (singular verb) the parade.

In this compound subject, the singular noun “majorette” is closest to the verb. Say, “She leads.”

A cackling hyena or squealing boars (compound subject) mimic (plural verb) your boyfriend’s voice.

In this compound subject, the plural noun “boars” is closest to the verb. Say, “They mimic.”

Lawrence graduated from high school. (Not, graduated high school here.)

Conjunction Pairs

Two conjunctions often work together in the same sentence to make a point. The sentence parts these conjunctions introduce must be parallel (of equal weight). Position the conjunctions close to what they compare. (In Grammarspeak, conjunction pairs are called “correlative conjunctions.”)

Common Conjunction Pairs

although, nevertheless

although, yet

both, and

either, or

if, then

neither, nor

not only, but also

when, then

whether, or

whether, or not

where, there

Neither George nor Gracie sails. Neither Gracie nor her cats swim.

(The word closest to the verb determines if it’s singular or plural. She sails: singular verb. They swim: plural verb.)

If you love children, then teaching is for you.

The wave took not only my snorkel mask, but also my suit.

As, As and So, As

The conjunction pair “as, as” is usually positive.

Jill is as fond of chocolate as Donna is.

The pair “so, as” is usually negative.

The stock market was not so volatile today as it was yesterday.

Subordinating Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions connect parts of a sentence (clauses or phrases) that are not of equal rank. Subordinating conjunctions include because, if, since, until, when, where, and while. They often link a dependent clause to an independent clause.

Because the monster lurks beneath, I’m afraid of Loch Ness.

Here, the conjunction “because” forms a dependent clause (“Because the monster lurks beneath”) connected to an independent clause (“I’m afraid of Loch Ness”).

We can’t see the stars until after sundown.

Here, the conjunction “until” links a prepositional phrase (“after sundown”) to the independent clause (“We can’t see the stars”).

If I were you, I wouldn’t wear stretch pants. (Not, was—see here.)

Conjunctions as Adverbs

Some conjunctions do two jobs at once. (In Grammarspeak, these are called “conjunctive adverbs.”) They may connect sentence parts, acting as conjunctions. At the same time, they modify other words, acting as adverbs.

Conjunctive adverbs include consequently, however, meanwhile, moreover, nevertheless, similarly, still, then, and thus. You’ll often find them at the beginning of a sentence or a clause. A comma usually follows these adverbs.

The pool was freezing; still, (conjunctive adverb) I needed to swim.

Weeks of uncertainty followed the election. Finally, (conjunctive adverb) it was over.

TIP: Don’t switch the conjunction “than” with the adverb “then.” Use “than” to compare. Use “then” to show time.

Santa’s chunkier than the Pillsbury Doughboy.

We ate, then ran.

CONSONANTS, VOWELS

Consonants are all the letters of the alphabet except the vowels—a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes y. With the names “Yvonne” and “Yvette,” for instance, you hear a vowel sound—“Ee von,” “Ee vet.” In words like “mystify,” “plenty,” “pigmy,” and “try,” the y also makes a vowel sound.

CONTRACTIONS (See apostrophes, and verbs.)

CURLY QUOTES (See quotation marks.)

Charlene has to practice her violin now. (Not, have, gots, or gotta—see here.)

D

DANGLING PARTICIPIAL PHRASES (See also verbs.)

Dangle? Isn’t that what earrings do? Or bungee jumpers? And what is a participle anyway? With regular verbs, a participle is the verb form that ends in ing in the present tense and d, ed, or t in the past tense.

tearing

chuckling

waxing

snored

kicked

dreamt

Combine participles with other words to make a participial phrase.

waxing the surfboard

tearing her hair out

kicked through the goal posts

Position participial phrases close to the word or words they modify. Be sure that a participial phrase at the beginning of a sentence refers to the subject.

Waxing his → surfboard, Rob Machado eyed the waves.

Tearing her hair → out, Bipsy dissolved into tears.

Kicked through the → goalposts, the football sailed into the stands.

Make clear what word or words the participial phrase modifies. Otherwise—oh horrors—your participial phrase dangles! The results can be downright funny.

Chasing Jesse James, → the locomotive carrying Detective Pinkerton chugged down the track. (Go, locomotive, go!)

For drawing on the wall, → Grandmother grounded Freddy. (Is Grandmother the wall artist?)

Tanner faced the interviewers, his shoes ← polished and wearing his only suit. (Are his shoes wearing the suit?)

Rearrange or reword to fix a dangling phrase.

Banish dangling participles by rearranging or rewording sentences or by adding a connecting conjunction.

Divide the wild rice between Kay and me. (Not, Kay and I—see here.)

Dangler:

Wearing a → black negligee, he noticed her. (Ooo-la-la!)

The Fix:

Wearing a → black negligee, she drew his attention.

Dangler:

Nestled between → Providence and Fall River, Ned saw the fishing boats. (Hope the water was warm!)

The Fix:

Ned saw the fishing boats ← nestled between Providence and Fall River.

Dangler:

Blessed with → superior stamina, Marie’s sneakers pounded the pavement. (Sneakers in training?)

The Fix:

Blessed with → superior stamina, Marie ran. Her sneaker-clad feet pounded the pavement.

DID YOU KNOW? Certain present participles introduce an idea, but stand apart from the rest of the sentence. The most common examples are “regarding,” “concerning,” and “according to.”

Considering how much the man hated him, Harry Potter couldn’t believe that Snape had come through.

TIP: Avoid starting sentences with “being as” or “being that.” It’s awkward and wordy. Use “because” or “since” instead.

“Since it was raining, I stayed home.” (Not, “Being as it was raining …”)

DASHES (See also hyphens, and quotation marks.)

Dashes are informal. They set off single words, phrases, or clauses to emphasize, draw attention, or add information. They come in two sizes. Em dashes ( — ) are long dashes. En dashes ( – ) are half as long, but longer than a hyphen. Use an em dash with words. Use an en dash with numbers (think “n” for “number”).

A massage never hurt anybody. (Not, nobody—see here.)

You can use dashes alone or in pairs. No space comes before or after a dash.

Trina always bought her Jaguars online—so much less bother, she said.

Hedley’s auburn curls—thanks to Loving Color No. 82—gleamed in the sun.

Em Dashes

Use em dashes:

To show a sudden break or abrupt change.

“I’ll be okay, really—wait, what’s that noise?” The phone dropped.

To show a side comment.

“Familiarity breeds contempt—and children,” Mark Twain once said.

To explain or add information.

In Number the Stars, Lois Lowry wrote, “Surely that gift—the gift of human decency—is the one that all countries hunger for still.”

To show hesitation or stammering.

“I can’t believe—” Clara gasped.

“That’s m—m—my blankie,” stammered Dylan.

To show attributions.

We may have a winner here!

—George Aldrich, Rotten Sneaker Contest judge

En Dashes

Use en dashes:

With math problems. (Use spaces when the en dash is a subtraction sign.)

17 – 9 = 8

With sets of dates or times.

January 6–February 3

WWII, 1941–45

8:30 A.M.–10:30 P.M.

With ranges of numbers.

Futon Sale: Just $49.99–$99.99

Peter did well in marketing. (Not, good—see here.)

Dandelion Wine, pages 53–54

To indicate birth years for living persons.

Bindi Sue Irwin (1998–), daughter of Steve Irwin, crocodile hunter.

To link two-word modifiers and sets of letters.

They crossed the New York–New Jersey border at midnight.

San Diego–Maui flight

FDR–JFK link

Forming Dashes

With a typewriter, make an em dash with two unspaced hyphens and an en dash with one. With a computer, check your software manual to learn how to form the em and en dash in your word processing program.

DID YOU KNOW? Dashes are sometimes incorrectly called “slashes.” (See slashes.)

DATA, DATUM (See Latin plurals.)

DATES (See numbers.)

When a full date, not just a year, is used in a sentence, follow it with a comma.

On March 4, 1995, Rex Morgan finally proposed to June, his comic strip love.

When listing only the month and year (not a specific day), skip the comma.

The North Woods adventure of July 2001 (not July, 2001) included great fishing, a tornado, fabulous food, and a canoe tipover. (This is preferable to writing “July of 2001.”)

Here’s a quick review of Math 101:

Cardinal numbers tell how many: 1, 2, 3; one, two, three …

Ordinal numbers indicate order: 1st, 2nd, 3rd; first, second, third …

When a date appears after a month, use cardinal numbers. Don’t add st, nd, rd, or th.

Bill and she are going to Stratford. (Not, her—see here.)

The wedding was August 12, 2000. (Not, August 12th, 2000.)

or

The wedding was on August 12. (Not, August 12th.)

Only use an ordinal number when you leave out the month.

Their wedding was the 12th.

Chocolat is due back by the 19th.

More rarely, spell out an ordinal number if it appears before the month.

RSVP by the second of December.

No commas are needed when the date comes before the month, as it often appears in academic or military writing.

7 December 1941

The Kitty Hawk departs 5 January 2003.

DECLARATIVE MOOD (See sentences, and verbs.)

DEFUSE, DIFFUSE

The verb “defuse” (dee fyooz´) means “to make less dangerous, tense, embarrassing, or hostile.”

The judge for the Best Breeder contest defused herd tension by crowning two Holsteins, Gert and Olive, as blue ribbon winners.

As a verb, “diffuse” (dih fyooz´) means “to disperse, spread out, or scatter.”

Wind diffused the dandelion puffs.

As an adjective, “diffuse” (dih fyoose´—rhymes with “moose”) means “dispersed or widely scattered.”

Diffuse constellations dot the night sky.

DESERT, DESSERT

As a noun, “desert” (deh´ zert) means “a dry, sandy region.” As a verb, “desert” (dih zert´) means “to abandon.” A “dessert” (deh zert´) is the last course of a meal. (Remember the double s by thinking “strawberry shortcake.”)

Edgie led his Young Life group on a hike in the Anza-Borrego Desert.

Members of the research team attempt cloning ants. (Not, attempts—see here.)

Crock deserted his post.

For dessert, Pat served her famous lemon meringue pie.

DID YOU KNOW? “Desert”—when pronounced “deh zert´”—also means a deserved reward or punishment. In the phrase “they got their just deserts,” the word “deserts” is correctly spelled with one s.

DIAGRAMMING SENTENCES

Building a house is much like fitting words together. A blueprint guides the construction of the house. Similarly, a diagram of a sentence creates a blueprint for sentence structure.

A century ago, almost every schoolchild knew how to diagram, or “parse,” a sentence. Students broke sentences into parts—to figure out the form and function of each word and how the parts were related.

The Grammar Patrol confesses that we loved diagramming sentences in school. But today, many people find diagramming old-fashioned and unnecessary.

With diagramming, the controversy comes with more complex English sentences. They are difficult to diagram and make you focus on individual words and their jobs instead of how words work together to create meaning. There are also several different ways to diagram sentences.

Nevertheless, it’s handy to know how diagramming works. Here are some samples of one way to diagram simple sentences:

John loves words.

Sarah reads voraciously.

Nikki rowed really well. (Not, good—see here.)

Linden especially loves insects.

More complex sentences:

My cousin Nancy sells antiques in Southern California.

The Phlegers returned yesterday from Tasmania.

DICTIONARIES

For just when ideas fail, a word comes in to save the situation.

—Johann Wolfgang von Goethe

Dictionaries vary widely in both quality and quantity of entries. It’s imperative to have a high-quality current dictionary on hand, such as Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, Tenth Edition (1994), The Random House Webster’s College Dictionary (1999), Webster’s New World Dictionary, Third College Edition (1988, 1997), or The American Heritage Dictionary, Third Edition (1992, 1996).

You have a problem with my sardine soufflé? (Not, got—see here.)

You can now find many dictionaries on the Internet, such as Merriam- Webster’s site, m-w.com, or OneLook Dictionaries’ site, www.onelook.com.

DIFFERENT FROM, DIFFERENT THAN (See also clauses.)

Things differ from one another, not than one another. Use “different from” to compare—it’s almost always the right choice.

Her taste in shoes is different from mine.

TIP: Only use “different than” when a clause follows it.

Keiko Matsui’s jazz is different than the jazz Louis Armstrong played (clause).

DISBURSE, DISPERSE

“To disburse” is “to pay out (often money).” “To disperse” means “to move in different directions” or “to make disappear.”

The comptroller disbursed the lottery bonanza.

The crowd dispersed after the appearance of the Accordion Marching Band.

DISINTERESTED, UNINTERESTED

“Disinterested” means “unbiased, neutral.” “Uninterested” means “indifferent, not interested.”

The boomerang contest called for disinterested, agile judges.

Vinnie was uninterested in football.

DOUBLE NEGATIVES (See negatives.)

E

EACH OTHER, ONE ANOTHER

Use the phrase “each other” when talking about two people.

Cleopatra and Marc Antony loved each other.

Anne should have gone to Bali. (Not, should have went—see here.)

Use the phrase “one another” when talking about more than two people.

The players rooted for one another in the game.

EASY MIX-UPS

While a spell checker would flag “Murry Christmas,” it can’t help when you choose a word that’s spelled right, but isn’t the correct word.

Some word pairs, often close in spelling, are easily switched by mistake. A current dictionary can help you avoid such bloopers.

We thank the Blotsons for this Sunday’s alter flowers.

(Should be altar.)

Are you confused about “affect,” “effect”? “Affluent,” “effluent”? Check the alphabetical listings in this book for common word mix-ups.

ELLIPSES

Ellipses are three spaced periods ( … ) that indicate that words or information has been left out.

In using ellipses, your job is to keep the original meaning when you shorten the quote. Sometimes, ad writers intentionally leave out words they don’t like, especially when quoting from reviews.

Original Review: I desperately wish I could give this film rave reviews!

Revised Ad Copy: … rave reviews!

Use ellipses:

To replace omitted material.

Thor couldn’t care less about Drusilda’s hairdo. (Not, could—see here.)

Original Version: “Soon the classroom was full of girls with their shamisens, spaced out as neatly as chocolates in a box.” (Memoirs of a Geisha, Arthur Golden)

Shortened Version: The girls were “ … spaced out as neatly as chocolates in a box.”

To indicate pauses, hesitation, or words trailing off:

“No, Alice, I’m …,” the Cheshire Cat yawned.

Tips on Spacing and Punctuation with Ellipsis Points

Three dots show an omission in a sentence. Put a space before and after the ellipsis points.

Carl Sandburg wrote of Abraham Lincoln, “The more fully Lincoln’s varied career is traced … the more his genius grows and passes beyond each interpretation.”

If the end of a sentence marks the beginning of the omission, use the period, then add the ellipses, for a total of four dots.

E. B. White wrote in Charlotte’s Web, “Wilbur never forgot Charlotte.… It is not often that someone comes along who is a true friend and a good writer. Charlotte was both.”

If the ellipses appear at the end of a quotation, put any needed parenthesis, comma, or quotation mark right after the final dot.

Snoopy’s stories always begin: “It was a dark and stormy …”

If the ellipses show that part of a quoted question is missing, put no space between the ellipses and the question mark.

“How doth the little busy bee . . .?” begins Lizzie’s favorite poem.

In a math sequence, put a comma before the ellipses.

5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, …

In a math series, do not put a comma before the ellipses.

1+ 2 + 4 + 8 + …

Other Ellipsis-Point Tips

Don’t begin an indented quoted passage with ellipses.

Katie felt bad about her house’s tilting walls. (Not, badly—see here.)

When you list items in a sentence, don’t put a comma before ellipses.

At the convention, you will need hats, balloons, placards, buttons, Advil … (Not, Advil, …)

EM AND EN DASHES (See dashes.)

EMAIL

This computer word, which stands for “electronic mail,” has entered our lives so quickly that even the experts can’t agree how to spell it: “E-mail,” “e-mail,” or “email.” The trend has been toward hitting the fewest number of keys, so “email” is winning.

The word “email” began life as a noun (“I’ll check my emails”). It has

since been “verbed” (“please email that draft to me”).

Give this fast, efficient communication mode the same attention you would a letter or a phone call, particularly in business settings. Proofread emails carefully and use your spell checker. Remember, you’re sending an image of yourself.

More Email Tips

Avoid overusing abbreviations, eliminating punctuation and capitalization, or writing in all capital letters. THAT’S LIKE SHOUTING! Be clear and concise.

Email only messages that you wouldn’t mind seeing as headlines in the New York Times.

If you forward anecdotes and jokes, delete the cluster of addresses at the top.

EMIGRANT, IMMIGRANT

An “emigrant” is one who leaves a country. An “immigrant” is one who enters a country. The verb forms work the same way. “To emigrate” is “to leave a country.” “To immigrate” is “to enter a country.”

Nina loves my baked Alaska. (Not, elastic—see here.)

The emigrant fled Bosnia for political reasons.

Chinese immigrants helped build the Transcontinental Railroad.

EMINENT, IMMINENT

The adjective “eminent” means “distinguished, lofty.” “Imminent” means “very near, very certain,” as in “imminent death.”

Doctor Stuart Patton is an eminent food scientist.

An attack of “cashew craving” is imminent.

ENERVATE, ENERGIZE

Don’t confuse these two words. They’re opposites. The verb “enervate” means “to weaken, to deprive of energy.” “Energize” means “to make energetic.”

Katie Couric has an energizing presence. (Not, enervating!)

ENTRÉE, ENTRY

The noun “entrée” means “main course” or “liberty to enter.” The noun “entry” means “entrance” or “item on a list.”

Eloise relished her entrée of eggplant Parmesan.

Margaret’s donations to the NAACP gave her entrée to the Image Awards.

A telling entry on Max’s Home Depot list was rat poison.

EPONYMS (See malapropisms.)

Eponyms are words taken from the names of famous people who are known for a certain trait or way of behaving.

That boy will grow up to be an Einstein.

The word “malapropism,” for instance, comes from Mrs. Malaprop, a play character known for her twists on word choices. Roquefort cheese, with a capital r, takes its eponymous name from the Roquefort area of France. The leotard was invented by aerialist Jules Léotard of France, who needed those close-fitting garments for free movement and safety in his high-flying work.

Ron saw the Boundary Waters in Minnesota. (Not, seen—see here.)

Other familiar eponymous words:

diesel engine (Rudolf Diesel)

mason jar (John Mason)

Jeeves (for writer P. G. Wodehouse’s legendary manservant)

Mona Lisa smile (for Leonardo da Vinci’s enigmatic portrait)

EUPHEMISMS

Euphemisms are mild, vague, or indirect words or phrases substituted for ones that might be considered too harsh or blunt.

I wept at the news that Steve Allen had passed away. (For “died.”)

EVERY DAY, EVERYDAY

“Every day” means “each day.” The adjective “everyday” means “ordinary, usual.”

Every day we have an everyday meal: meatloaf.

EXERT, EXPEND

The verb “to exert” means “to use energetically, put forth, put into action.” “Expend” means “to spend, use up.”

The protesters exerted pressure on the board.

Jennie expended every ounce of energy in the Ironman Triathlon.

EXCLAMATION POINTS

Exclamation points exclaim! They draw attention, emphasize, and demand.

“Rats!” said Buck, opening the FedEx package. “I ordered teddy bear boxers.”

“Welcome to my home page! I kiss you!” read Mahir Cagri’s home page.

Do not use a period or comma after an exclamation point. Use only one exclamation point, not more!!!!! Avoid using exclamation points in formal writing, and use them sparingly in informal writing.

Hand over the anchovies, George. (Not, anchovies George—see here.)

EXPLICIT, IMPLICIT

The adjective “explicit” means “stated outright.” “Implicit” means “unsaid, understood, implied.”

The recipe gave explicit directions for baking chocolate puffs.

Jared’s disapproval was implicit in his deep scowl.

F

FARTHER, FURTHER

The adverb “farther” means at a greater distance. (TIP: There’s a “far” in “farther.”) The adverb “further” means “more distant in degree or time.”

She threw the javelin farther than ever before. (This indicates a greater distance.)

“Look further,” the soothsayer advised. “A handsome amphibian awaits you.” (A Frog Prince is in the wings.)

FERMENT, FOMENT

“To ferment” (fer ment´) is “to undergo a chemical reaction.” “To foment” (foh ment´) is “to stir up, to provoke.”

Some fine wines ferment in oak casks.

An unhappy sailor fomented a mutiny aboard the ship.

FEWER, LESS (See amount, number.)

Some grocery stores are replacing their “Ten Items or Less” signs with the correct “Ten Items or Fewer.”

“Fewer” answers “how many?” Use “fewer” for things you can count.

fewer home runs

fewer political gaffes

fewer orchids

fewer fruitcakes

“Less” answers “how much?” Use “less” for things you can’t count.

less courage

less sickness

less cheating

less laughter

Here’s a camping idea for Robin and them. (Not, they—see here.)

The exception is the use of “less” with time: Sylvie had less than three hours until her Broadway debut.

TIP: Say, “two fewer,” but “one less.”

FIGURES OF SPEECH (See literal, literally; metaphors; and similes.)

“Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?” asks a Shakespearean sonnet. Figures of speech, also known as figurative language, help make creative comparisons. The items compared may be wildly dissimilar, but the reader gets the point. The most common figures of speech are metaphors and similes. Others include hyperbole and puns.

Metaphors

A metaphor compares one thing to another, making the comparison appear to be true. (Metaphors don’t use “like” or “as.”)

When it comes to girlfriends, Fergus is a fox.

Brunhilde was a storm cloud when angry.

Similes

A simile compares one thing to another, using the prepositions “like” or “as.”

Bronco towered, like Goliath. (Despite his size, Bronco isn’t Goliath.)

Heather is bright as the sun. (Heather is not the sun!)

Hyperbole (Say, “hie per´ buh lee,” not “hie´ per bowl.”)

Hyperbole is deliberate exaggeration used for emphasis or effect.

Francesca looks fifty years younger than she is. (Bless that wrinkle cream.)

Al had waited centuries for this moment. (Just call him Methuselah.)

The people in the courtroom await the jury’s verdict. (Not, awaits—see here.)

Puns

Kid: “I need some puns.”

Alice: “Do you want ballpoint puns or fountain puns?”

Puns are plays on words. A pun compares two dissimilar things by using one word or phrase. Sometimes, the joke includes words that sound alike and so apply two meanings of a single word.

Did you hear about the elf who didn’t want to work for Santa anymore, so he set himself up as an independent Clause?

Q. What did Balboa say when he discovered Panama?

A. Isthmus be the place.

Homophones (sound-alike words) provide great material for puns, jokes, and plays on words. (See homophones.)

Sign on a gas station’s tow truck: “We Keep You on Our Tows.”

FILLERS (See as, like, and spoken errors.)

In conversation, the word “like” has become an all-purpose part of speech. Overuse of “like” as a filler is ubiquitous.

“Dad, I, like, need a new car. Yours is, like, totally rusty and, like, it’s, like, torture to drive.”

That’s too many “likes” for anyone’s liking.

An English professor at a prominent East Coast college launched a campaign to abolish the word “like” from students’ speech after counting 87 “likes” in an overheard conversation between students. Many schools include speech (minus fillers!) in their graduation requirements.

Occasional fillers can be overlooked. But overusing them in business, educational, or professional situations can distract your listeners and harm your image. The biggest danger is having fillers become so much a part of your speech that you’re completely unaware that you use them.

Anyway, where was I? (Not, Anyways—see here.)

DID YOU KNOW? Adding the fillers “honestly” or “to be honest with you” implies that other things you say are not honest.

Quite honestly, this car’s a bargain.

Common Fillers

like

um, uh

totally

actually

basically

clearly

really

honestly, truly

I mean

you know

You know what I mean? Get it?

You get (or know or see) what I’m saying?

See?

No problem.

Whatever.

He/She goes …

so (as in, “That is so not cool.”)

Anyway …

The number of female senators increased. (Not, amount—see here.)

Tips for Being a Filler-Killer

Be alert: Listen carefully for fillers in spoken language.

Tally: Have a friend track the fillers you use in an hour.

Tape yourself: Record your speech or a presentation, then replay, listening for fillers. Be prepared for a shock.

DID YOU KNOW? Some speaking organizations charge members a fee (from a quarter to $5) for every filler—er, um, uh—used in a speech.

FLOUNDER, FOUNDER

The verb “to flounder” means “to struggle falteringly.” (As a noun, a flounder is a flatfish.) “To founder” is “to sink, to fail utterly.” (As a noun, “founder” means “one who founds or establishes.”)

Confused by twists and turns in the path, the hikers floundered.

Lacking good leadership, the desalination project foundered.

Thomas Jefferson was a founder of the country.

FORMER, LATTER

“Former” means “the first of two listed.” “Latter” means “the second of two listed.”

We have cashews and corn curls—would you like the former (meaning cashews) or the latter (meaning corn curls)?

I preferred my former clunker to this gas-guzzling SUV.

Your bib overalls or your velvet suit? I’d choose the latter for the Oscars.

Edith’s daughters-in-law are terrific. (Not, daughter-in-laws—see here.)

Don’t use “former” or “latter” when talking about more than two items. Use “first, second, third, … last.”

TIP: Don’t confuse “latter” (two t’s—the second of two things listed) with “later” (one t—the opposite of “earlier”).

G

GANTLET, GAUNTLET

The nouns “gantlet” and “gauntlet” are confused so often that their meanings are blurring. For “gantlet,” think “ordeal” or “course”: “Run the gantlet.” For “gauntlet,” think of a glove: “Throw down the gauntlet.”

MNEMONIC (MEMORY AID): Imagine a gaunt person wearing a glove, a gauntlet.

GENDER-INCLUSIVE LANGUAGE

He, she, or he/she? Which pronoun is best? Life was so simple before the revolution. Today, it makes sense to be gender inclusive and politically correct. The problem has to do with the third person singular form of the pronoun.

Each angler must clean his own fish. (What about the female anglers?)

Many of the solutions for this problem are awkward: he/she, his/her, s/he, or alternating the pronouns “he” and “she.” The Grammar Patrol hopes that in the future, some clever grammarian will come up with a great unisex singular pronoun. Until then, consider these strategies for reducing gender bias:

Use plural nouns and pronouns.

All firefighters must care for their own equipment.

Replace the pronoun with an article.

Each student must submit his application by November 30.

becomes

Each student must submit an application by November 30.

He sits in the bathtub during The Truman Show. (Not, sets—see here.)

Remove the pronouns. (The sentences become shorter, too.)

An effective leader delegates his responsibilities.

becomes

An effective leader delegates responsibilities.

Use generic nouns for occupations: mail carrier (for postman), flight attendant (for stewardess), police officer (for policeman), spokesperson (for spokesman), workers (for workman), layperson (for layman), homemaker (for housewife), supervisor (for foreman), news anchor (for anchorman).

Find substitutes for words containing “man.” “Man-made” becomes “synthetic.” “Man” or “mankind” becomes “human” or “humankind.” “Chairman” becomes “chair.” “Manpower” becomes “staff.”

Avoid suffixes that make a noun feminine when added to words, such as ess, ette, ix, and ienne. “Actress” and “comedienne” become “actor” and “comedian.”

In business, use titles that don’t perpetuate gender stereotypes or marital status: Mr., Ms., Dr.

Ms. Donna Agins plots her novels in great detail.

Mr. Robert Jones was chief engineer on the submarine project.

Dr. Steven L. Weber is president of San Diego State University.

Dr. Edward Nelson performed the liver transplant.

TIP: If possible, ask people how they wish to be addressed. It might be “Ruth Overheu,” “Ms. Ruth Kay Overheu,” or “Mrs. Gerald Overheu.”

GERUND (See verbs.)

GOT, HAVE

You got [sic] to be careful if you don’t know where you’re going, because you might not get there.

—Yogi Berra

The verbs “got” and “have” are often confused. “Got” is the past tense of the verb “to get.” “Have” is the present tense of the verb “to have.”

Cooperation has replaced the “space race.” (Not, “race”. —see here.)

Tips for Using “Got” and “Have”

Don’t use “got” in the present tense when you mean “have.”

Peter, I have a great idea for you. (Not, I got.)

I have to go to the Detroit Pistons game later today. (Not, I got to or gotta.)

“Got” and “gotten” can both be correct.

Part of the confusion about “got” comes from the past participle. In American English “have gotten” is more common. In British English, “have got” is more common.

Present

Past

Past Perfect

I get

I got

I have gotten or

I have got

Consult the dictionary—you’ll find almost a full page of definitions for the verb “get.” Shades of meaning separate “I’ll get him for this,” and “I’ll get pizza.”

Tips for Using “Got” and “Gotten” with Helping Verbs

American English offers a subtle difference in meaning between “got” and “gotten” when used with helping verbs.

Monica Seles has got hundreds of tennis racquets.

Here, “has got” means Monica has the racquets in her possession.

Disney has gotten strong reviews for its children’s programming.

Here, “has gotten” means Disney has received or acquired the reviews.

Don’t count on ads to help you with the got-have conundrum. Catchy advertising slogans such as “Got milk?” (or, in Hawaii, “Got poi?”) sell products, but reinforce a common error. What the slogans really mean is: “Hey! Do you have any milk?” or “Have you got any milk?” (What makes this confusing is that “have” can be either a verb or a helping verb. In the first example, the verb “have” needs no helping verb; in the second example, the verb “got” does need a helping verb, “have.”)

Another common spoken error is taking shortcuts like “gonna” or “gotta” for “going to” or “have to.”

“Jay Leno’s gonna love this latest scandal.” (is going to)

“Anne’s gotta visit the Florida Keys.” (has got to)

TIP: A related shortcut is the one taken with verbs like “would have,” “should have,” and “could have.” Informally, these often become “woulda,” “shoulda,” and “coulda.” Avoid this.

Is that true? (Or, Is that a fact?) (Not, a true fact—see here.)

H

HANGED, HUNG

Both words are the past tense of the verb “to hang.” Use “hanged” when referring to hanging a person: execution by being suspended (the person was hanged until dead). Use “hung” when referring to things you can hang up, such as clothes, doors, pictures.

The Confederate Army hanged Union spy Timothy Webster.

Hilary hung her sequined majorette uniform back in the closet.

HEALTHY, HEALTHFUL

Although the lines are blurring, we recommend using “healthy” when you mean “in good health,” and “healthful” when you mean “good for you.”

I stay healthy by riding my unicycle.

Weight Watchers teaches healthful eating habits.

Abby, a gorgeous calico cat, lets me pet her. (Not, let’s—see here.)

HISTORIC, HISTORICAL (See articles.)

Think of “historic” as “famous in history” or “important in history.” Think of “historical” as “based on events of the past.” Both words are adjectives; pronounce the h. Say, “a historic, a historical” not “an ’istoric, an ’istorical.”

Martin Luther King, Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech was a historic civil rights event.

Diane Gabaldon’s books are based on extensive historical research.

HOME, HONE

As a verb, “home” means “to move toward home, a goal, or a target.” The verb “hone” means “to sharpen or perfect.”

The exterminator homed in on the termites in the wood paneling.

Don honed his carpentry skills while making a coffee table.

HOMOGRAPHS, HOMONYMS, HOMOPHONES (See its, it’s; their, there, they’re; your, you’re.)

The term “homonyms” used to cover all words that look or sound alike.

Today “homonym” has been divided into the subsets “homophone” and “homograph.” Homophones (“same sound”) sound alike, but have different meanings and spellings: one/won, hair/hare. Homographs (“written the same”) have the same spelling, but different sounds: “wound,” as in, “injury,” and “wound,” as in, “wrapped.”

Fewer than five boys fell asleep during Muggles studies. (Not, less—see here.)

Homophone errors are easy to make.

“Have your dog spade.” (Make this spayed.)

“See you this Forth of July!” (Make this Fourth.)

“I’m dyeing to meat you.” (Make this dying and meet.)

No computer spell checker will catch such errors.

Here’s a sampling of frequently confused homophones:

aid (v., to help; n., help, something that helps)

aide (n., a helper)

air (n., the gas we breathe)

heir (n., one who will inherit)

bare (adj., not covered, naked)

bear (v., to hold up, support; n., large furry predator)

boarder (n., lodger)

border (n., boundary, edge)

bread (n., food made of baked dough)

bred (v., past tense of “breed”)

capital (n., seat of government, wealth)

Capitol (n., government building)

cite (v., to quote, mention)

sight (n., vision, view)

site (n., location, setting)

course (n., route, direction, class)

coarse (adj., rough, made of large particles)

dew (n., small drops of moisture)

do (v., to perform, accomplish, create)

due (n., something that is owed; adj., fitting, expected; adv., exactly or directly)

die (v., to cease living)

dye (v., to color; n., coloring)

faze (v., to upset; unfazed—not “unphased”)

phase (n., a stage of development, part)

Some investors go from “rags to riches”; others don’t. (Not, riches;” —see here.)

feet (n., plural of foot)

feat (n., outstanding deed)

floe (n., large ice mass)

flow (v., to move freely; n., running water)

foreword (n., introduction to a book)

forward (adv., toward the front; adj., near the front; n., a position in certain sports)

forth (adv., out, forward, into view)

fourth (adj., after “third”; one quarter)

hangar (n., building for aircraft)

hanger (n., clothes hanger, a person who hangs things)

lead (rhymes with “feed”: v., to guide; rhymes with “Fred”: n., a metal)

led (rhymes with “Fred”: v., past tense of “lead”)

pair (n., two)

pare (v., to peel)

pear (n., a fruit)

peer (v., to look closely; n., an equal)

pier (n., a platform over water)

plain (adj., clear; n., flat, treeless area)

plane (n., airplane, level surface)

pole (n., upright post, slender rod, the north and south regions of the earth)

poll (n., survey)

Imus and McCord correct people’s grammar. (Not, grammer—see here.)

pore (v., to study with great concentration; n., tiny skin opening)

pour (v., to flow freely)

principal (n., adminstrator, money; adj., main)

principle (n., rule)

reek (v., to smell bad; n., a bad odor)

wreak (rhymes with “seek”: v., to bring about or inflict)

role (n., part played by an actor; duty)

roll (v., to turn; n., a roster, a small bread loaf)

sleight (rhymes with “light”: n., skill, cunning)

slight (v., to underestimate, insult, neglect; adj., meager, small)

spade (n., digging tool, playing card symbol)

spayed (v., neutered)

stationary (adj., stable, not moving)

stationery (n., writing paper)

The good “gnus” is that cartoonists love homophones.

DID YOU KNOW? Words that look the same and sound the same are simply words with multiple meanings. Think of “bear”: The hyperactive bear couldn’t bear to hibernate all winter.

Another example is “cardinal,” a word you spell and pronounce the same whether you mean the crested red bird, a Roman Catholic official, or the cardinal numbers that indicate quantity: 38, 105, 400 …

Some day, I’ll ride a Harley. (Not, someday—see here.)

HOPEFULLY

The adverb “hopefully” has become a filler word. Used correctly, this word means “filled with hope.”

“Marry me, Miranda,” begged Arturo hopefully.

Avoid “hopefully” when it doesn’t have a verb to modify:

“Hopefully, Taffy’s fleas are finally gone,” said Mrs. Wheezle. (Surely those fleas weren’t filled with hope when they left!)

The Fix:

“I hope Taffy’s fleas are finally gone,” said Mrs. Wheezle.

HYPERBOLE (See figures of speech.)

HYPHENS (See also compound adjectives; compound nouns; dashes; phrasals; and prefixes.)

Hyphens ( - ) link words together. Use hyphens to avoid confusion.

smoke-free airport

self-help books

cell-phone addicts

Use hyphens:

With some prefixes, especially when the root word is capitalized.

self-discovery

ex-president

semi-sweet

pre-Oscar party

pre-Christian era

mid-January

With blended double surnames.

Greenfield-Martin

Hunter-Gault

Ochoa-Roberts

TIP: Alphabetize hyphenated names by the first letter of the name that appears before the hyphen.

With the names of compound numbers from 21–99 and written fractions. (See numbers.)

thirty-three

fifty-five

eighty-seventh

five-eighths

one-half

two-thirds

TIP: Use figures for fractions that accompany a whole number.

6⅔

55¾

178 ½

I heard about his catching the crocodile. (Not, him—see here.)

With numbers showing age or time.

ten-year-old spelling champ

18- to 22-year-old undergraduates

two- to three-year period

47-year marriage

With highways and to designate aircraft.

I-805

DC-3

F-16

With compound modifiers. (See compound adjectives.)

a can’t-miss putt

The candidate’s running-mate criteria reflect the growing role of minorities and women.

Alas, remembering the evolving rules of hyphenation is like trying to drive through quicksand. Hyphens don’t always stick to the rules above. For example, different current dictionaries recognize both “mouthwatering” (no hyphen) and “mouth-watering” (with hyphen) as adjectives. “Work-release” has a hyphen; “workroom” does not. “Witch-hunt,” yes. “Witchcraft,” no.

“Re-” Words

The prefix re- means “again.” A hyphen after the prefix can change the meaning of a word:

Jessie re-covered (“covered again”) the sofa herself.

Tammy recovered (“got better”) surprisingly fast from the flu.

Many words that start with the prefix re- don’t require a hyphen: recrown, redrawn, rehire, reheat, and repaint. But sometimes omitting the hyphen changes the meaning of the word.

The twins talked until 3 a.m. (Not, 3:00 a.m. —see here.)

Do you mean …

“represent” (to stand for) or “re-present” (to present again)?

“repose” (calmness) or “re-pose” (to pose again)?

“reprove” (to rebuke) or “re-prove” (to prove again)?

“resort” (n., vacation spot; v., to go or turn to) or “re-sort” (to sort again)?

“restrain” (to hold back) or “re-strain” (to strain again)?

“recount” (to tell a tale) or “re-count” (to count again)?

(Some dictionaries recognize “recount”—no hyphen—for “to count again.”)

In one of our classes, Jason told a story that highlights the difference a hyphen can make. Away on a trip, his boss sent Jason an email asking him to resend her some information. He faxed it, then emailed her, “I resent it.” When the boss returned, she asked him, “Jason, why did you resent sending me that information again?” (Jason had typed “resent” when “re-sent” would have been clearer.)

“Well-” Words

Use a hyphen when “well” appears before the noun it modifies.

well-written satire

well-oiled machine

well-known person

Faith Hill received well-earned praise for singing at the Oscars.

Drop the hyphen in “well-” adjectives if they follow a “to be” verb.

Praise for Faith Hill’s singing at the Oscars was well earned.

Tricky Hyphen Issues (See chart.)

To hyphenate or not to hyphenate? Do you pick up your toys, pick-up your toys, or pickup your toys? Is it pickup truck, pick-up truck, or pick up truck?

The answers can be more challenging than you might think. Words are constantly evolving. Today, more and more words are losing their hyphens and becoming single words.

(Answer: You can pick up your toys in your pickup truck.)

Wylie is vain as a peacock. (Not, vein or vane—see here.)

General Rules (See phrasals.)

Make most compound verbs two words. (See phrasal verbs.)

Back up your computer documents. (Not, back-up.)

“You mix up the brownie ingredients, Frog,” said Toad. (Not, mix-up.)

Please follow up on the missing hot air balloon. (Not, followup.)

Link the words in compound nouns and adjectives, either as a single word or with a hyphen.

Take this off-ramp (noun) for the off-road (adjective) rally.

Provide backup (noun) for the back-up (adjective) team.

TIP: While most dictionaries list the noun “backup” as a single word, a few recognize the hyphenated spelling of “back-up.” Just don’t use the two-word verb “back up” when you mean the noun. Write “The SWAT team called for backup” (or “back-up”), not “The SWAT team called for back up.”

Hyphens: All in the Family

How do you handle words that show family relationships? Use hyphens for most relationship words, except “grand” or “step”; make those one word. Use two words (no hyphen) with “half”:

sons-in-law

great-uncle

sister-in-law

grandmother

stepbrother

stepmom

half brother

half sister

DID YOU KNOW? Many job titles, such as “attorney-at-law,” are hyphenated. Others, such as “editor in chief” and “commander in chief” (or “Commander in Chief”), are not hyphenated. With other compound words, don’t be surprised if you find hyphen disagreements from dictionary to dictionary. Choose one style—and be consistent.

Note that Americans tend to hyphenate much less than the British, Canadians, and Australians. That explains the inconsistencies found in the English language around the world.

This type of gridlock is unprecedented. (Not, These type—see here.)

I

IDIOMS

Idioms are expressions that have understood meanings, which are often figurative rather than literal. While native speakers take the meanings of idioms for granted, they can confuse people just learning English or anyone not familiar with the reference.

“The gerbil kicked the bucket” doesn’t mean the little furry thing is kicking a tiny bucket; this idiom means that the gerbil died. People often use idioms in casual speech and dialogue. Many idioms have been in use so long that they have become clichés. Use idioms sparingly.

Do you know these common idioms?

Hey, Savion, break a leg! (From theater: “Good luck!”)

I’m burning the midnight oil. (I’m staying up late.)

Lawyers follow the tenets of the law. (Not, tenants—see here.)

Melissa was wiped out after the twelve-hour American Bar exam. (She was exhausted.)

Erika, it’s up to you. (You decide what to do now.)

The news went in one ear and out the other. (The person wasn’t listening.)

What’s the good word? What’s up? How’s it going? (What is happening in your life?)

What’s up with that? (What does that mean?)

She really poured it on thick. (She exaggerated.)

Sandals sell like hotcakes in the summer. (They sell well.)

Please cut me some slack. (Ease up on me.)

Ruthie May has a pie-in-the-sky attitude. (She’s a dreamer.)

Charlotte Church’s voice is out of this world. (She sings really well.)

Chip and Cathy are on the same wavelength. (They think alike.)

Don’t bite off more than you can chew. (Don’t take on more tasks than you can handle.)

Michelle’s eyes were bigger than her stomach. (She took more food than she could eat.)

Ms. Mahany, your oven’s good to go. (It’s fixed.)

My ex-girlfriends? Don’t go there. (I don’t want to talk about them.)

Pet rocks were just a flash in the pan. (They were a momentary fad.)

Martina Hingis had her day in the sun. (People recognized her achievements.)

Coaches sometimes pull strings for players. (Coaches may bend academic standards.)

Two easily confused idioms:

champing at the bit (being impatient) (not chomping)

stomping ground or grounds (familiar territory) (not stamping ground)

Life is short. Eat dessert first. (Not, desert—see here.)

Both “champ” and “chomp” mean “to chew upon noisily,” but “champing” is the idiom. While “stamping ground” appears in most American dictionaries, it’s primarily British English and used much less frequently than “stomping ground.”

Readers were champing at the bit to read J.K. Rowlings’s next book.

George was back in New Orleans, his old stomping grounds.

Sports Talk

Sports talk has become part of business settings, as well as everyday life.

That idea is off the wall. (That idea is unusual.)

They’re out in left field. (They’re out of touch.)

Right off the bat, the team cooperated. (From the start, the team cooperated.)

This is straight from the horse’s mouth. (This information came directly from the source.)

Let’s touch base Tuesday. (Let’s contact each other on Tuesday.)

Further clues led them to the missing marbles. (Not, farther—see here.)

It’s a slam dunk. (It’s certain.)

Don’t drop the ball. (Do your part.)

Let’s get the ball rolling. (Let’s begin.)

Hold your horses! (Wait a minute!)

You’re in the ballpark. (Your ideas or numbers are reasonable.)

Bull’s eye! (Perfect!)

The ball’s in your court. (It’s your responsibility.)

Take a crack at it. (You try doing this.)

Step up to the plate. (Take your turn.)

Work Talk

Some idioms are specific to the work environment.

Eric’s beefing up his résumé. (He’s making his résumé stronger.)

What’s the bottom line? (How much will this cost?)

Climb the corporate ladder. (Take a series of jobs or promotions leading to upper management jobs.)

She’s hit the glass ceiling. (She’s encountered hidden barriers to advancement.)

The company is downsizing. (It’s cutting back on personnel.)

The company’s going public. (It’s offering stock to the public.)

They’re letting him go. (They’re firing him.)

Charlie’s crunching the numbers. (He’s analyzing the financial situation.)

We’re playing phone tag. (We’re missing each other’s phone calls.)

Start thinking outside the box. (Think of new, creative, or unusual ideas.)

What’s your turnaround time? (How fast can you complete the job?)

She works 24/7. (She works long hours: 24 hours a day, 7 days a week.)

We finished J.I.T. (We finished “just in time” to meet our deadline.)

Dudley honed his couch potato skills. (Not, homed—see here.)

IMPERATIVE MOOD (See verbs.)

IMPLY, INFER

“To imply” is “to hint at, to suggest.” “To infer” is “to deduce or conclude.”

The plumber implied that Satchel’s rubber ducky had clogged the toilet.

Desirée inferred from Roger’s face that he was hiding something.

INCOMPLETE SENTENCES

In formal writing, use complete sentences. But when speaking informally, it’s fine to use incomplete sentences: “See you,” “In a minute,” “Later, Gator,” or “If I have time.”

“Me? Win the lottery? Fat chance!”

An incomplete sentence may be a comma splice, a fragment, or a run-on.

Comma Splices

When you use a comma where a period or a semicolon is needed, you make an error called a “comma splice.” You’re accidentally using commas to splice two complete sentences together.

Comma Splices:

Buckle up, it’s the law.

I saw you there, Steve was with you.

Daisy pouted, she usually does.

Three Ways to Fix Comma Splices

1. Split the comma splice into two separate sentences.

Buckle up! It’s the law.

2. Join the two sentences with a semicolon.

I saw you there; Steve was with you.

3. Insert a conjunction between the two sentences.

Daisy pouted, as she usually does.

Mailbox: The Keeneys. (Not, The Keeney’s—see here.)

Sentence Fragments (See dependent clauses and subject)

Putting a capital at the beginning and a period at the end of a string of words doesn’t always create a complete sentence. Fragments are incomplete sentences, such as stranded dependent clauses.

My party was great. Birthday streamers everywhere!

Playing in the mud. The toddler was covered from head to toe.

I’ll call Grandma. If you want me to.

Wild, woolly Texas. It’s known for its longhorn cattle.

“Heinrich proposed. While I was bowling.”

Siraj planned to shoot the rapids next weekend. His life long dream. (The noun phrase is missing a verb: It’s a fragment.)

A fragment is easy to fix. Either join it to a complete sentence or turn it into a complete sentence.

My party was great, especially the birthday streamers everywhere.

The toddler was covered from head to toe from playing in the mud.

I’ll call Grandma if you want me to.

Wild, woolly Texas is known for its longhorn cattle.

“While I was bowling, Heinrich proposed.”

Siraj planned to shoot the rapids next weekend. It was his lifelong dream.

Run-On Sentences

Run-on sentences don’t know where to stop. They happen when two independent clauses don’t have a conjunction or the punctuation to correctly join them. (Run-on sentences have other names: “fused sentences” or “comma faults.”)

Run-On:

She entered in a gown and cape he followed in a bunny outfit.

The dog dragged his feather bed outside. (Not, drug—see here.)

Three Ways to Fix Run-On Sentences

1. Split the run-on sentence into two separate sentences.

She entered in a gown and cape. He followed in a bunny outfit.

2. Join the two sentences with a semicolon.

She entered in a gown and cape; he followed in a bunny outfit.

3. Insert a conjunction between the two sentences.

She entered in a gown and cape, and he followed in a bunny outfit.

DID YOU KNOW? Used sparingly, incomplete sentences can add emphasis in informal writing. For example, “She can really pump iron. And how!” Just be sure that your meaning is clear.

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS (See here, here.)

INFER (See imply, infer.)

INFINITIVES (See verbs.)

INITIALISMS (See abbreviations, and acronyms.)

An initialism is an abbreviation that you pronounce letter by letter:

ASAP

as soon as possible

ATM

automated teller machine

CDC

Center for Disease Control

CEO

chief executive officer

FYI

for your information

IPO

initial public offering

IRS

Internal Revenue Service

ISBN

International Standard Book Number

MVP

most valuable player

NPR

National Public Radio

SASE

self-addressed stamped envelope

SPF

sun protection factor

SUV

sports utility vehicle

UMW

United Mine Workers

UN

United Nations

The Beatles strode onstage; fans squealed. (Not, onstage,—see here.)

Make certain your readers understand the meanings of initialisms by spelling out the words the first time they are used.

Our new chief financial officer (CFO) is a real Scrooge.

INTERJECTIONS

Interjections express outbursts of feeling: “Wow!” “Phooey!” “Drat!” “Zoinks!” They can be part of a sentence or separate.

Use a comma after a mild interjection:

Rats, my cell phone’s dead.

Use an exclamation point after a strong interjection:

“Bummer! The swordfish got away,” yelled Chris.

Save interjections for speech and informal writing.

INTERROGATIVE VERBS (See verbs.)

INTRANSITIVE VERBS (See verbs.)

IRREGULAR VERBS (See verbs.)

ITALICS (See abbreviations, and quotation marks.)

Thanks to word processors, you can now italicize with a keystroke. (If you don’t have access to a computer, indicate italics by underlining: The Wind in the Willows.)

The first song Johnny Mathis sang was “Misty.” (Not, sung—see here.)

Use italics:

For scientific names.

Tyrannosaurus rex (a dinosaur)

Condylura cristata (a star-nosed mole)

Staphylococcus (a bacterium that causes boils)

Longisquama (a mouse-sized prehistoric animal)

TIP: Capitalize only the first word of these scientific names.

For emphasis.

He did bring me flowers; but I’m allergic to ragweed.

To highlight an example.

The term to get away with murder defined the defendant’s case.

(You can also enclose the phrase in quotation marks: “to get away with murder.”)

For screenplay directions, to show how a character should speak a line.

Kermit (innocently): It’s not that easy being green.

For titles. (See quotation marks.)

As a rule of thumb, use quotation marks for titles of shorter works, italics for longer works.

Artistic works: Mona Lisa (Leonardo da Vinci)

Books: Fooling with Words: A Celebration of Poets and Their Craft (Bill Moyers)

Cartoon strips: For Better or for Worse (Lynn Johnston)

Cartoon shows: Arthur

CDs and DVDs: Noche de cuatro lunas (Julio Iglesias)

Journals: JAMA (Journal of the American Medical Association)

Long poems: Evangeline (Henry Wadsworth Longfellow)

Magazines: Wired

Movies: Walk the Line

Musical works: 1812 Overture (Peter Ilich Tchaikovsky)

Newspapers: Arizona Sun, Washington Post, New York Times, Detroit Free Press

Plays, musicals: Fosse

Radio shows and series: Holder Overnight (CJAD, Montreal, Peter Anthony Holder); Fresh Air (NPR, Terry Gross)

TV shows and series: Friends, A&E Biography

Elise’s master’s degree reads Fall 2000. (Not, Fall, 2000—see here.)

For words from other languages.

Use italics for foreign phrases that are not yet common in English.

bon ami

pièce de resistance

c’est magnifique

mea culpa

c’est fini

feng shui

E pluribus unum

Hasta la vista, Baby

Some foreign words (shish kebab, en masse, café au lait, and maven, for instance) have been used so often that they are no longer italicized. Set these words in Roman type (standard type), not italics.

More Italics Tips

Italicize names of ships, submarines, airplanes, spacecraft, and satellites.

Grand Princess

Air Force One

Sojourner

the space shuttle Endeavor

Don’t italicize an abbreviation, numeral, type, or class before or after a specific ship or spacecraft name.

HMS Pinafore

Voyager 2 (spacecraft)

If you make an italicized word plural or possessive, don’t italicize the s or ’s.

Rick had a stack of Surfer Magazines.

Business and financial sectors dominate Forbes’s demographics.

If a question mark is not part of the italicized text, use Roman type for the question mark.

Have you seen my copy of Latina?

If a question mark is part of the italicized text, italicize it.

Richard Nelson Bolles wrote the bestseller What Color Is Your Parachute?

Do not use a period after the question mark: The question mark serves as end punctuation.

Do not italicize architectural works or natural sites, such as the Empire State Building or the Grand Canyon.

A mouse was featured in Stuart Little. (Not, “Stuart Little.”—see here.)

IT’S, ITS (See contractions, and possessive pronouns)

Does the dog wag it’s tail or its tail? (See below.)

It’s

The apostrophe in “it’s” indicates a contraction, a combination of two words with one or more letters missing. “It’s” = “it is.”

Look at that clear blue sky—it’s another day in paradise.

On the Wall Street trading floor, it’s important to carry Tums.

Its

“Its,” a possessive pronoun, shows ownership. The s is part of the word. No apostrophe is needed.

The movie Dinosaur wowed viewers with its special effects.

The aardvark inhaled its lunch of ants and termites.

MNEMONIC (MEMORY AID): Possessive its never splits. Don’t use an apostrophe with “its”—you don’t use an apostrophe with “his” or “hers.”

To test whether to use “it’s” or “its,” say, “it is.” If the sentence makes sense, use the contraction “it’s.” Otherwise, use the possessive “its.”

Does the dog wag “it is” tail? No, so use “its”: The dog wags its tail.

J

JIBE, JIVE

“To jibe” is a verb meaning “to agree” or, in sailing, “to shift direction.” “Jive” is a noun meaning “swing or jazz music.”

Their versions of the showdown at Tombstone didn’t jibe.

Musicians at the Wild Note play jive every night.

(These words have other meanings, too. Check your dictionary.)

Karen’s lawn-mowing business made money. (Not, Karens’—see here.)

L

LATIN PLURALS (See also plurals, and prefixes.)

Even if you’ve never studied Latin, you know many Latin words. Aqua is “water” (aquarium, Aquaman). Stella is “star” (constellation, stellar job). With some words of Latin origin, just follow the English rule of adding an s or es to form plurals:

forum, forums (not fora)

thesaurus, thesauruses (not thesauri) (This Latin word is actually borrowed from Greek.)

THE BIG E: Some words have kept the Latin form of the plural. The words “alumnus” and “alumni” (rhymes with “pie”) refer to male high school or college graduates and to mixed groups of graduates (male and female). Don’t use “alumnuses.” The words “alumna” and “alumnae” (“uh lum´ nee,” as in “Caesar”) refer to female graduates. Don’t use “alumnas.” Informally, you can also shorten “alumnus” to “alum” for male or female grads. Accent the second syllable: “uh lum´.”

The word “phenomenon” is singular. The word “phenomena” (not phenomenons) is plural.

The word “criterion” is singular. The word “criteria” (not criterions) is plural.

Right

One criterion—not breaking—governed the Egg Drop Contest.

Wrong

One criteria—not breaking—governed the Egg Drop Contest.

? Why?

“One” is singular. Use the singular “criterion,” not the plural “criteria.”

DID YOU KNOW? The word “species” is a Latin noun meaning “a distinct kind.” It has the same form in the singular and plural. (There is a word “specie,” but it means “coin.”)

The Data, Datum Conundrum

Controversy reigns in the “datum, data” debate. Technically, the Latin word “datum” is singular: It means a single piece of information. “Data” is plural: It means pieces of information, or facts.

My roommate and I pull all-nighters. (Not, My roommate and me—see here.)

But does “data” take a plural verb or a singular verb? The answer can be “both”! Use a singular verb (such as “is,” “renders,” “makes,” or “shows”) with “data” when you mean an amount of “information” taken as a whole:

This data gives credence to our theory. (It gives.)

The nutritional data supports our rutabaga regimen. (It supports.)

Use a plural verb (such as “are,” “render,” “make,” or “show”) with “data” in academic or scientific writing, especially when referring to separate amounts of evidence.

These data support the recent ADA guidelines for daily calcium intake. (They support.)

TIP: Today, you hear “datum” about as often as pigs fly. As for “data,” your best bet is to consider the rest of the sentence.

LAY, LIE

“To lay” is to place. “To lie” is to recline.

TIP: Hens lay (eggs!). People lie. (For details on “lay” and “lie,” see verbs, here.)

LEGAL WRITING (See ampersand, and commas.)

Law professors are teaching students the art of reducing puffed-up language to make laws, statutes, propositions, and other legal documents more clear.

As I said, swimming is life. (Not, Like I said—see here.)

Simplifying Legalese

Law students are learning to write less-complicated sentences and find simpler terms for phrases, such as whereas the party of the first part, aforementioned, insofar as, herein, heretofore, hereinbefore, and hereinafter.

Legalese Version:

By reason of the fact that the witness had disappeared, the trial was postponed.

Simplified Version:

The judge postponed the trial because the witness had disappeared.

Paying Attention to Punctuation (See commas.)

In law, the placement of a comma, colon, or semicolon can make a big difference in the interpretation of a law or in drafting other legal documents, such as wills.

Without the serial comma, Phil receives a bonanza:

I bequeath all my worldly goods to Phil, Lil and Will. (Phil gets half, while Lil and Will split the other half.)

In the serial-comma version, Phil’s share is reduced:

I bequeath all my worldly goods to Phil, Lil, and Will. (They each receive a third.)

Clarifying Jury Instructions

In California, a group of judges, lawyers, linguists, and laypeople is rewriting jury instructions in plain, simple English. Here’s a sampling:

I am averse to fried crickets. (Not, adverse—see here.)

Current: Failure of recollection is common. Innocent misrecollection is not uncommon.

Proposed: People sometimes honestly forget things or make mistakes about what they remember.

Current: Circumstantial evidence

Proposed: Indirect evidence

Current: Preponderance of the evidence

Proposed: More likely true than not true

Associate Justice Carol A. Corrigan of the California state Court of Appeals says, “Why not explain the law to jurors in language that they understand?” Her rationale for simplicity applies to all aspects of law.

LEND, LOAN

The Grammar Patrol still treats “lend” as a verb and “loan” as a noun. (Keeping this lend/loan distinction is probably a losing battle.)

“Lend me your yacht for the weekend, please, please, please?” wheedled Danny.

“I think not. Get a loan for your own yacht,“ retorted Nigel.

LET’S, LETS

The word “let’s” is a contraction, meaning “let us.”

“Let’s go to Sea World,” said Chloe¨.

The verb “lets” is the third person singular form of the verb “to let.”

Judith lets spiders live indoors, as long as they don’t crawl into beds.

At halftime, over 5,000 toilets flushed citywide. (Not, 5000—see here.)

LIGHTED, LIT

Use “lighted” as an adjective. Use “lit” as the simple past tense of “to light.”

A lighted candle led Angus to the castle.

One thousand lights lit the White House Christmas tree.

LIKE (See as, like; fillers; and similes.)

LIKE, SUCH AS

Both “like” and “such as” are correct when used to introduce examples. “Such as” suggests a more formal tone. Use a comma before “like” or “ such as” when a list with commas follows:

She adored Italian food, like antipasto, ravioli, and lasagna.

Kenneth “Babyface” Edmonds has written songs for many performers, such as Madonna, Eric Clapton, and Whitney Houston.

LIKELY

When the word “likely” is used as an adverb, it needs a modifier, such as most, very, quite, or rather.

Right

I will most likely dine with Denzel Washington.

Wrong

I will likely dine with Denzel Washington.

? Why?

Don’t use the adverb “likely” alone. Add a modifier.

The same goes for other often-heard uses of “likely.” Say, “Most likely, she’ll wing-walk this Sunday,” not “Likely she’ll wing-walk this Sunday.” Say, “Jill will very likely find her purse,” not “Jill will likely find her purse.”

You can use “likely” alone when it is used as a predicate adjective (one joined by a linking verb to the subject).

Rain is (linking verb) likely (predicate adjective) to fall Tuesday.

LINKING VERBS (See verbs.)

Simon piqued Bernadine’s interest. (Not, peeked or peaked—see here.)

LITERAL, LITERALLY (See figures of speech.)

“Literal,” an adjective, means “word for word,” exact. “Literally,” an adverb, means “in a literal, not a figurative, sense.”

The literal meaning of carte blanche is “blank card.”

During the quake, I was literally shaking.

Right

Election officials literally worked night and day.

Wrong

Election officials literally drowned in chads.

? Why?

“Literally” is often not needed or used incorrectly. Election officials can work long, long, hours, but they wouldn’t really drown in tiny pieces of paper.

LOSE, LOOSE

The verb “to lose” (rhymes with “shoes”) means “to fail to find,” or “to be deprived of.” “Loose” (rhymes with “goose”) is an adjective meaning “free,” or “not tight.”

I lose my glasses constantly.

Name of an Alaskan store chain: Moose on the Loose.

The elastic in Dudley’s jogging pants came loose.

MNEMONIC (MEMORY AID): “Loose” and “tight” both have five letters.

M

Malapropisms

John Dryden coined the word “malapropism” in the sixteenth century, to mean inappropriate word combinations. The character Mrs. Malaprop in The Rivals, a 1775 play by Richard Sheridan, helped popularize this eponymous term. Mrs. Malaprop had a way of almost getting her words right. The results were often hilarious—“alligator” for “allegory” or “Lead the way and we’ll precede” (should be “proceed”). Barbara Kingsolver had one of her Poisonwood Bible characters, Rachel Price, specialize in malapropisms.

With regard to your order, Silly Putty is sold out. (Not, With regards to—see here.)

“Already I was heavy-hearted in my soul for the things in life I have took [sic] for granite (granted).”

Be on the lookout for malapropisms.

Olivia’s suitor was driving erotically (erratically).

Tess is known on campus as a rebel (rabble) rouser.

President Carter made a conscience (conscious) decision to support Habitat for Humanity.

For many years, Mr. Quigley had remained monotonous (monogamous).

My prospective (perspective) differs greatly from yours.

I haven’t been living in a vacuum cleaner (vacuum) all year.

MARINADE, MARINATE

A marinade is a spiced liquid used before cooking to season or tenderize foods. The verb “to marinate” means “to soak in a marinade.”

Use Freddy’s Pineapple Marinade to marinate the swordfish.

MEASUREMENT (See numbers.)

MEDAL, METAL, METTLE

A “medal” is an award. “Metal” refers to elements such as copper or iron, often combined to form alloys. “Mettle” means “courage, fortitude, strength of character.”

Bill framed his uncle’s World War II medals.

The idiom “Put the pedal to the metal” means “Drive fast! Slam that accelerator to the floor of the car!”

A magazine article about the Tour de France bicycle race used a play on words in its headline:

“Put the Pedal to the Mettle” (Sports Illustrated, July 24, 2000)

MEDIOCRE, MUNDANE

The adjective “mediocre” means “undistinguished, ordinary.” “Mundane” means “of this world, not spiritual; practical or commonplace.”

Zonk’s and Syd’s views about body piercing jibed. (Not, jived—see here.)

Due to inferior brandy, Ida’s Cherries Jubilee was mediocre.

Bored with mundane housework, Priscilla took up the harp.

MEMENTO

A “memento” is a keepsake.

Her grandmother’s locket was a treasured memento.

The word “memento” is often misspelled and mispronounced as “momento.”

METAPHORS (See also figures of speech, and similes.)

Bucky’s dripping faucet, above, doesn’t signal a need for a plumber, but some deeper theme in the movie they are watching. (Bucky also throws in a lovely malapropism: “melted flower” for “metaphor.”)

“Then Julian says, ‘It’s over, Snookums.’ ” (Not, Julian goes—see here.)

Metaphors are figures of speech that compare, making two very different things seem similar. One thing is used as a symbol for another, such as an empty street for loneliness.

Metaphors say that one thing is another thing.

Annalisa is a dolphin in the ocean, diving through the waves.

Henry was a mule about changing his mind.

Mixed Metaphors

Mixed metaphors awkwardly combine parts of two familiar metaphors, which can confuse the reader.

Throw down the gauntlet to the wolves. (This is a mix of “throw down the gauntlet” and “throw someone to the wolves.”)

Don’t spill wild oats. (This is a mix of “don’t spill the beans” and “sow wild oats.”)

MODE, MOOD

The noun “mode” means a way or style of doing something. The noun “mood” means “state of mind.”

Bentley, in taxpaying mode, riffled through a shoebox of receipts.

Serena was in a foul mood after Hernando stood her up.

MODIFIERS (See adjectives; adverbs; clauses; dangling participial phrases; and phrases.)

Modifiers describe, limit, or qualify another word. They can be adjectives, adverbs, phrases, or clauses.

squeaky (adjective) wheel

grinned naughtily (adverb)

Running from the python (participial phrase), I fell.

The man who came to dinner (clause) stayed for years.

Chocolates on the pillow are a bonus. (Not, added bonus—see here.)

Misplaced Modifiers

Misplaced modifiers result when words or phrases are too far from the words they modify or describe.

She had read why the Titanic sank in the morning paper. (The Titanic sank in the morning paper?)

Until proven innocent, I will hold Dilbert guilty. (Who is guilty, “I” or “Dilbert”?)

Paleobiologists search for dinosaurs with computers. (Dinosaurs with laptops?)

When he was in the second grade, my father told me he learned to read. (A seven-year-old dad?)

Modifier Placement Affects Meaning

With some modifiers, such as “only” and “not,” placement in a sentence affects the meaning:

Only I have eyes for you. (No one else likes you.)

I have only eyes for you. (Not ears, mouth, feet …)

I have eyes only for you. (You’re the one for me, Babe!)

MOOD (See mode, mood, and verbs.)

N

NEGATIVES

Like insistent two-year-olds, negative words say “no” or “not.” Common negatives are no, not, nothing, no one (not “noone”), nowhere (not “nowheres”), nobody.

Making Positive Verbs Negative

You can make most positive verbs negative by pairing them with “do not” or the contraction “don’t.”

Audrey’s list: walking stick, hiking boots, laptop. (Not, list: Walking—see here.)

Positive

Negative

whine

don’t whine

sky dive

do not sky dive

lollygag

do not lollygag

stare

don’t stare

With forms of the verb “to be,” only the negative “not” is needed, not the word “do.”

I am not a crook.

They weren’t great chefs.

You are not Ricky Martin.

DID YOU KNOW? The Johnny Mercer song from the 40s that said to “accentuate the positive” had the right idea. The positive “Remember your ticket” is stronger than the negative “Don’t forget your ticket.”

Double Negatives

This cartoon parent uses a double negative: “ain’t” and “nuthin’.” (And “ain’t” ain’t proper, anyway.)

When you accidentally pair two negatives, you create a double negative. Double negatives are a definite “no-no”! Along with the negative words listed above, these adverbs are negative: “barely,” “hardly,” and “scarcely.”

Say, “There aren’t any cookies left” or “There are no cookies left,” not “There aren’t no cookies left.” Use only one negative: “aren’t” (for “are not”) or “no,” but not both.

Art’s regimen includes a daily bike ride. (Not, regiment—see here.)

Right: One Negative

Wrong: Double Negatives

I don’t have any Cheese Puffs.

I don’t have no Cheese Puffs.

I can hardly wait.

I can’t hardly wait.

Henry won’t go anywhere!

Henry won’t go nowhere!

Timmy could scarcely speak.

Timmy couldn’t scarcely speak.

They take no guff.

They don’t take no guff.

Songwriters love double negatives:

“Don’t want nothin’ from ya, Baby …”

“I can’t get no lovin’ anymore …”

Negative Prefixes

Some prefixes are negative. When joined to a word, they can mean “not.” Examples are dis-, il-, im-, in-, ir-, non-, and un-.

disagreeable (not agreeable)

immortal (not mortal)

irreplaceable (not replaceable)

unappealing (not appealing)

illogical (not logical)

inefficient (not efficient)

nonaggressive (not aggressive)

Beware of creating your own substandard negative words:

unexperienced (should be “inexperienced”)

displeasant (should be “unpleasant”)

unimpossible (should be “possible”—two negatives make a positive!)

unseparable (should be “inseparable”)

unefficient (should be “inefficient”)

Use a hyphen with non- only when it precedes a proper noun or adjective, as in, “non-Catholic denomination.”

Some prefixes are joined to the word; others are separated from the word with a hyphen. Consult your dictionary. (See hyphens, and prefixes.)

DID YOU KNOW? “I couldn’t care less” uses the negative “not” correctly. If you say, “I could care less,” you would mean that it is possible for you to care less than you already do.

Crystal is lying down. (Not, laying—see here.)

NEGLIGENT, NEGLIGIBLE

The adjective “negligent” means “guilty of neglect.” “Negligible” means “so small, not worth considering.”

Fabio was negligent in forgetting Valentine’s Day.

Response to my mismatched socks ad was negligible.

NOBEL, NOBLE

The Nobel Prizes are the annual honorary prizes named for Alfred Nobel. “Noble” means “aristocratic, imposing.”

Barbara McClintock won a Nobel Prize in 1983.

The unsung work of literacy tutors is a noble undertaking.

NON SEQUITUR

“Non sequitur” is Latin for “it does not follow.” Use the term when one bit of information doesn’t logically follow what came before it, or a conclusion is not based on the facts.

Customer: “I’d like to buy some African violets.”

Clerk’s response: “Kitty litter is on sale today.”

NOUNS (See capitals; collective nouns; plurals; and predicate nouns.)

Nouns are “namers.” They are some of the first words we learn: dog, cat, blanket, bottle, and cookie. Words like a, an, the, that, this, these, and those will lead you to nouns.

the CPU

a jalopy

an ambulance

these raccoons

Or, look for ness, tion, and ity word endings. These endings signal that the word is a noun.

goodness

celebration

electricity

Nouns can be singular, meaning “one.”

jet

soda

sardine

tax

patch

flurry

On December 20, 1969, they wed. (Not, December 20 1969—see here.)

Nouns can be plural, meaning “more than one.” Plurals are usually formed by adding s or es. (If a noun ends in y, change the y to i and add es.)

jets

sodas

sardines

taxes

patches

flurries

Some nouns keep the same form, whether they are singular or plural.

elk

pants

sheep

moose

fish

deer

Common and Proper Nouns

Common nouns are general, not specific. They name people, places, things, qualities, ideas, emotions. Don’t capitalize common nouns.

People: actor, chef, designer, activist, musician, writer

Places: city, country, beach, stadium, museum

Things: piano, shampoo, computer, car, ocelot

Qualities or ideas: democracy, investment, cooperation, truth

Emotions: love, hate, grief, anger, relief, joy

Proper nouns name specific or unique people, places, and things. These include continents, months of the year, days of the week, holidays, and other specific entities. Begin proper nouns with a capital letter:

People: Tom Cruise, Wolfgang Puck, Donna Karan, Scott Joplin, Rosemary Wells

Places: Australia, Waikiki Beach, Santa Cruz Island, the Upper Peninsula

Things: Steinway, Neutrogena, Mac OS, Cadillac, the Getty Museum, Manhattan

Continents: Africa, Antarctica, Asia, Australia, Europe, North America, South America

Months, days: April, December, Tuesday, Sunday

Holidays: Hanukkah, Thanksgiving, St. Patrick’s Day

Noun Placement: Before or After Verbs

Nouns can appear before or after verbs.

Giraffes (noun) don’t need (verb) ladders (noun) to reach their dinners.

Michael Crichton (noun) wrote (verb) Jurassic Park (noun).

A flock of crows descends on the statue. (Not, descend—see here.)

Compound Nouns (See hyphens.)

A compound noun is two or more nouns working together. These noun combinations can be written as separate words, joined with a hyphen, or closed (one word). Check a current dictionary for correct spelling.

Some compound nouns are written as separate words.

ballet dancer

group therapy

football player

safety deposit box

Some compound nouns are linked with hyphens.

son-in-law

pay-per-view

court-martial

Some compound nouns are closed (no hyphen, no space).

barbell

bagpipe

lawbreaker

beeline

ladybug

storyteller

NUMBER (See pronouns, and verbs.)

Pronouns and verbs have “number”: They can be singular or plural. The forms of pronouns and verbs change, according to their number.

NUMBER, AMOUNT (See amount, number.)

NUMBERS (NUMERALS) (See dates.)

Here are some number tips:

When should you spell out numbers, and when should you use numerals? Sources vary. Everyone agrees to spelling out the numbers from one to nine.

three toads

nine trumpet players

Many usage experts say to use numerals (10, 20, etc.), not words (ten, twenty, etc.), for the numbers 10 to 99 and above. Others say you can use words. (Take your pick—just be consistent.)

76 trombones (or seventy-six trombones)

150 guests (or one hundred fifty guests)

600 appetizers (or six hundred appetizers)

4,000 golf balls (or four thousand golf balls)

Superman scrutinized an article about Kryptonite. (Not, a article—see here.)

Some science and technical writers use numerals for all numbers.

TIP: When mixing a low numeral with a high numeral, use either numerals or words for both:

Nitty-Gritty Grammar is for anyone from 10 to 110.

The Ping-Pong rematch will take from five to twelve hours.

If a sentence contains more than two numerals, use numerals for all.

Buy 8 go-carts, 175 light sticks, and 1,200 bottles of bubbles.

Put a comma between unrelated numbers, or spell out the first number when two numbers appear in succession.

By 1900, 170 people populated Marine Hills, Minnesota.

Then ten 30-year-olds ran across the field.

To avoid confusion, say “zero” not “oh” when saying numbers aloud.

Serial Number M6G407:

“The serial number is “Em, six, gee, four, zero, seven.”

Area Code 760:

“The area code is seven, six, zero.”

Use a comma separator with numbers that tell how many. (Commas separate the hundreds, thousands, millions, and so on.)

2,483 Hawaiian T-shirts

6,000,000 invading ants

Do not use a comma when indicating a year.

The 1968 Mustang was a beauty. (Not, 1968, Mustang.)

The stock market crashed in the year 1929. (Not, the year, 1929.)

Don’t begin a sentence with a numeral.

Write “Fifty-seven golf balls landed in our yard,” not “57 golf balls landed in our yard.”

Don’t use the conjunction “and” or hyphens if writing out numbers in the hundreds and thousands:

Four hundred eleven vintage cars entered the Concours d’Élegance.

My soybean angel food cake didn’t rise. (Not, raise—see here.)

Feet or foot?

English can be mystifying. You say that a six-foot fence is six feet tall.

DID YOU KNOW? Math terms, such as shortened versions of “inch,” “foot,” and “mile,” are now considered symbols, not abbreviations. With these customary English units, write “in,” “ft,” and “mi”—use no periods. In text, spell out these words.

O

OBJECTS

The English language has four kinds of objects: direct objects, indirect objects, object complements, and objects of prepositions.

Direct Objects

Once you know the subject and verb of a sentence, ask “whom” or “what” the subject is acting upon. A word (or words) that answers that question is a direct object: an object that receives the action of the verb. Only transitive verbs take direct objects. (See transitive and intransitive verbs.)

Barbara Walters interviews (verb) celebrities (direct object).

Barbara Walters interviews whom? “Celebrities.” The noun “celebrities” is the direct object of the verb “interviews.”

Celine Dion has sold (verb) 100 million albums (direct object).

Celine Dion has sold what? “Albums.” The noun “albums,” plus its adjective, “100 million,” is the direct object of the verb “has sold.”

Spiderman throws his web. (Not, throw—see here.)

Indirect Objects

Objects can also be indirect. Indirect objects always fall between a verb and a direct object. They tell you “to whom,” “to what,” “for whom,” or “for what” the action is done.

Stephen King gives (verb) charities millions (indirect object). (Gives millions to what?) (direct object)

The direct object of the verb “gives” is “millions.” The word “charities” is the indirect object. It completes the action of the verb.

Erika cooked (verb) everyone pancakes (indirect object). (Cooked pancakes for whom?) (direct object)

“Everyone” is the indirect object. It tells for whom Erika cooked the pancakes.

Meredith called (verb) her husband a shuttle (indirect object). (Called a shuttle for whom?) (direct object)

Meredith doesn’t think her husband is a shuttle. “Husband” is the indirect object. She arranged to have a shuttle to pick him up.

TIP: You can’t have an indirect object if there is no direct object.

Object Complements

A complement completes. An object complement completes the meaning of a direct object of a verb. Adjectives, nouns, noun phrases, prepositional phrases, pronouns, and verb phrases can be object complements.

Little Alex made (verb) Drew (direct object) his hero (object complement).

The noun “hero” complements the direct object “Drew.”

Horrified, the nutritionist watched (verb) his client (direct object) crunching on pork rinds. (object complement)

“Crunching on pork rinds” complements the direct object “client.”

People called (verb) Mr. Rogers (direct object) “everyone’s favorite neighbor.” (object complement)

The phrase “everyone’s favorite neighbor” complements the direct object, Mr. Rogers.

Bob brought his world-famous “Bob’s Own” salad dressing. (Not, brang—see here.)

Objects of Prepositions (See prepositional phrases.)

Objects of prepositions can be nouns or pronouns and their modifiers.

past (preposition) the dugout (object—noun)

without her (preposition)(object—pronoun)

ONOMATOPOEIA

Decked out as Onomatopoeia Boy, Amos spews “words that reflect their meaning in their sound.” Forming words by imitating sounds is called onomatopoeia (on uh maht´ uh pee´ uh.)

And how did Edda become Sesquipedalia Girl? By using extra-long words (sesqui-, one-and-a half,” + ped, “foot”). Our advice? Eschew sesquipedalianism—avoid using words that are a foot-and-a-half long!

Thanks to onomatopoeia, words can help readers “hear” sounds:

babble

cuckoo

Biff! Bam! Pow!

hiss

screech

boom

pop

sizzle

whippoorwill

OXYMORONS

When two contradictory words are paired, they form an oxymoron. The word comes from two Greek word opposites, oxy (“sharp”) + moros (“dull”).

Here’s a sampling of oxymorons:

alone together

awfully good

cruel kindness

diet ice cream

exact estimate

found missing

genuine imitation

jumbo shrimp

make haste slowly

near miss

organized chaos

same difference

Save oxymorons for emphasis, humor, or other special effects.

Ad: Tuxedos, $49.99. (Not, Tuxedo’s or Tuxedos’—see here.)

P

PARENTHESES (See also appositives, and relative pronouns.)

Parentheses ( ) give the reader information that is helpful but not essential: The sentence would make sense without the words inside the parentheses.

Special percussion instruments (slide whistle, duck quacker, and ratchet) make Copland’s “Pops Hoedown” exciting.

Use parentheses:

For interjecting a comment.

When a parenthetical statement falls inside another sentence, don’t capitalize the first word or use a period inside the parentheses.

Tyra Banks (she was a million-dollar model) also acts.

When a parenthetical question falls inside another sentence, don’t capitalize the first word. But do use a question mark inside the parentheses.

Ms. Fussbudget (isn’t that a perfect name?) frets incessantly.

TIP: People who keep interrupting you to talk about themselves are irritating. Likewise, overuse of parentheses can irritate and confuse your reader:

Bruno called (did I mention we’re engaged?) to tell me that his friends (Henry, Thorvald, and Samantha) are coming for dinner (Bruno has a lot of nerve!).

Rudolph was different from the other reindeer. (Not, than—see here.)

For adding a sentence as an aside.

When a parenthetical statement or question stands alone, do capitalize the first word and use end punctuation.

We didn’t finish the project today. (We did win the office Klondike tournament.)

My blind date was a dud. (Who likes garlic breath?)

To add omitted information.

Cold Mountain (Charles Frazier) received rave reviews.

For adding specific information.

The remaining Beatles (Paul McCartney, Ringo Starr, and George Harrison) staged a reunion after John Lennon’s death.

The parentheses set the list apart from the sentence. You could also use dashes. Presenting the list with commas instead of parentheses or dashes would be confusing because commas would be needed to separate the three musicians’ names and after “Beatles.” (See dashes.)

For citing references within text in scholarly journals and academic papers.

Some graduate schools follow the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, called the APA Manual. Using APA format, a quote that is a new reference must be followed with the author, date, and page.

Ice-T said, “It’s not a Warner Brothers fight; it’s my fight” (Reston, 1992, 16).

“… and the smallness of a research setting” (Jenson and Jankowski, 1991, 55).

Such cited references are an exception to the “period inside quotation marks” rule.

Many beginning university composition courses rely on the Modern Language Association Handbook for Writers, called the MLA Handbook, for citation format.

Choose one style manual and be consistent. (For other recommended books, see More Grammar Resources.)

Mama says, “Always wear clean underwear. ” (Not, underware—see here.)

PARTS OF SPEECH

For a quick review of parts of speech, see the “Nitty-Gritty Grammar Refresher”. Or, turn to these specific listings: adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, interjections, nouns, prepositions, pronouns, and verbs.

PASSED, PAST

“Passed” is the past tense of “to pass.” It means “moved by.”

We passed the thatched cottages of Devon.

“Past” can function as an adverb, preposition, noun, or adjective. As an adverb, “past” means “beyond a point” or “by.”

The buffaloes thundered past.

As a preposition, “past” means “alongside” or “beyond.”

He drove past (preposition) the house.

“Past” can also be a noun or an adjective, meaning “before now.”

That pie-in-the-face caper is all in the past. (noun)

This past (adjective) week Daisy made curtains out of her bedspread.

Don’t confuse “past” with “passed.” Instead of “I past the sword-swallowing test,” use the verb “passed.”

PEAK, PEEK, PIQUE

These three homophones are all pronounced “peek.”

The verb “to peak” means “to achieve the highest point or intensity.” The noun “peak” means “point or top.” The adjective “peak” means “at the highest level.”

Crystal’s acting career peaked when she was fourteen.

Renny reached the peak of Mt. Sneffles just before 2 P.M.

Randy gave a peak performance in the Ironman.

Maya Lin pored over the blueprints. (Not, poured—see here.)

The verb “to peek” means “to peer, glance, or show quickly.” The noun “peek” means “a quick sly glance.”

Peek at Boston’s past.

Give me a peek at your little black book.

The verb “to pique” means “to stir or irritate.” The noun “pique” means “a resentful feeling.”

This Presto Veggie Slicer—just $9.99—will pique your interest.

In a fit of pique, Cuddles rejected the poached salmon.

PERCENT, PERCENTAGE

Half this game is 90 percent mental.

—Yogi Berra

Percentages show rates or proportions. You can use either “percent” or “percentage” if no number comes before.

A high percent (or percentage) of sweepstakes finalists are Libras.

When using a specific number, follow the numeral with either “percent” or “%.”

That high jumper must have about 10 percent (or 10%) body fat.

Make “percent,” meaning “rate per hundred,” one word. It has evolved from the Latin per centum, “by the hundred.”

Place the percent sign right after the numeral (no space): 3%, 100%. Use the percent sign (%) only for mathematical, scientific, or technical writing; otherwise, spell out the word.

Separate the numeral and the word “percent” with a space.

The top score was 98 percent.

Repeat the percent sign each time in listing two or more percentages.

This Internet start-up company is expected to grow from 40%–50% next year. (Note the unspaced en dash.)

Interest rates of 5%, 6%, and 7% are available.

Tommy Lee lets Al keep the window open. (Not, let’s—see here.)

Use a numeral, not a word, whether you use “%” or “percent.”

Ad: Valentine underwear 25% off

Donations fell by 81 percent after our treasurer went to jail.

(Do not write “eighty-one percent.”)

THE BIG E: Use a word, not a numeral, with “percent” at the beginning of a sentence.

Seventy-four percent of the union workers voted to strike.

Singular and Plural Verbs with “Percent” or “Percentage” (See articles.)

When the article “the” appears before “percentage,” use a singular verb.

The percentage of Palm Pilot devotees is rising. (It is rising.)

When the article “a” appears before “percentage,” the prepositional phrase that follows “a percentage” tells you whether to use a singular or plural verb.

A high percent of the voting population ignores the debates. (It ignores.)

A high percentage of savvy investors use Motley Fool information. (They use.)

A small percent of the muddy footprints are Fluffy’s. (They are.)

PERIODS (See incomplete sentences.)

A period ( . ) says, “Stop!” Periods are end marks of punctuation and do other jobs, too. You may have been taught to put two spaces after a period. With today’s proportional fonts, put only one space after a period.

Use periods:

At the end of all complete sentences that don’t end in a question mark or an exclamation mark.

Chicago’s Shedd Aquarium looks out on Lake Michigan.

At the end of many abbreviations.

etc.

cf.

Dr.

Mrs.

(Use no spaces for academic degrees, such as M.A., Ph.D.)

The Jetsons’ dinner was a flop. (Not, Jetson’s—see here.)

After initials in a name.

W. E. B. Du Bois

Robert E. Lee

C. S. Lewis

Use a space between initials. (Some sources recommend no space between initials, but the Grammar Patrol votes with The Chicago Manual of Style on this one: We space initials.)

In Web site addresses.

dunk.net

Amazon.com

fineonline.com

m-w.com

monster.com

grammarpatrol.com

After numbers in a list.

The onset of winter brings migratory urges to the following groups:

1. Common loons

2. Monarch butterflies

3. Canadian geese

4. Snowbirds

DID YOU KNOW? A period never falls outside of quotation marks in American English. This is a typographical convention. (See quotation marks.)

Felix said, “Try my famous broccoli-cheese bread.” (Not, bread”.)

PERSON

Verbs and pronouns have “person”: first, second, and third. “Person” can be singular or plural. (For more about this topic, see the charts in pronouns, and verbs.)

PHOTOGENIC, PHOTOGRAPHIC

The adjective “photogenic” means “looks good in photos” (a photogenic baby). The adjective “photographic “ means “used in photography” (photographic equipment) or “like a photograph in accuracy and detail” (a photographic memory).

PHRASALS

Have you ever noticed how some words always work together, like pair skaters? In Grammarspeak, these paired words are called phrasals. There are phrasal adjectives, phrasal prepositions, and phrasal verbs.

Sarah and Jim’s twins were angels for Halloween. (Not, two twins—see here.)

Phrasal Adjectives (See compound adjectives, and hyphens.)

A phrasal adjective is any compound adjective or phrase used to modify a noun.

pet-loaded → SUV

man ← in the street

Drooling into his dish, → the dog snarfed down the filet mignon.

Phrasal Prepositions

A phrasal preposition contains more than one word. Here are examples:

as to

by way of

except for

in lieu of

up to

with the exception of

TIP: In informal writing and speech, you can replace many phrasal prepositions with a simpler word. Use “instead” for “in lieu of.” Use “about” for “with regard to.”

Phrasal Verbs (See among, between, and compare to, compare with.)

Phrasal verbs take specific prepositions, such as abstain from, aim for, approve of, consist of, contingent upon, and lighten up.

How are you? I’m well. (Not, good—see here.)

Some phrasal verbs can only take one specific preposition, while others can take two or more. Each combination creates a different meaning:

consist of

compare with or compare to

distinguish between, distinguish among, or distinguish from

“Annoyed” takes “by”; “feel annoyed” takes “with” or “at.”

Lavonne was annoyed by Wally’s boorish behavior.

I feel annoyed with my mechanic; my car still stalls.

“Hanker” takes “after” or “for.”

Lynn hankers after pollo asada and menudo.

Silver-tipped cowboy boots are what Alf hankered for.

“Meddle” takes “in” or “with.”

Parents shouldn’t meddle in their children’s decisions.

Don’t meddle with Alvina until she’s had her coffee.

Suppose, Supposed (to)

Right

We’re supposed to have lunch with the Obergs on Saturday.

Wrong

We’re suppose to have lunch with the Obergs on Saturday.

? Why?

Use the past tense of “suppose” when an infinitive like “to have” follows: supposed to have. “Supposed to” is often mistakenly written and said as “suppose to.”

Use, Used (to)

Right

Louisa used to make gumbo every Saturday.

Wrong

Louisa use to make chicken gumbo every Saturday.

? Why?

Use the past tense of the verb “to use” when an infinitive like “to make” follows: used to make. “Used to” is often mistakenly written and said as “use to.”

Whose sneakers are these? (Not, Who’s—see here.)

TIP: The forms of some words change, depending on the jobs they do in sentences. Using this chart, you know that you go to a workout to work out.

Noun

Verb

Adjective

carry-on

carry on

carry-on

drive-in

drive in

drive-in

follow-up

follow up

follow-up

grownup or grown-up

grow up

grown-up

mix-up

mix up

mixed-up

pickup

pick up

pickup

workout

work out

———

PHRASES

A phrase is a group of related words without a subject and a predicate. Phrases are never complete sentences. Phrases can be noun phrases, prepositional phrases, infinitive phrases, gerund phrases, and participial phrases.

a mahogany grand piano (noun phrase)

beside the swimming pool (prepositional phrase)

to dance the light fantastic (infinitive phrase)

watching basketball star Kevin Garnett (gerund phrase)

glued to his cell phone (participial phrase)

PLURALS (See consonants, vowels.)

“Plural” means “more than one.” Know the rules for making singular nouns plural.

“Dang! I just sat on my glasses!” (Not, set—see here.)

Making Singular Words Plural

For most nouns, including those ending in a vowel followed by a y, simply add s.

kite/kites

pachyderm/pachyderms

lei/leis

monkey/monkeys

toy/toys

attorney/attorneys

For words ending in ch, s, sh, ss, x, and z, add es.

peach/peaches

gas/gases

eyelash/eyelashes

kiss/kisses

box/boxes

one buzz/many buzzes

If a word ends in y with a consonant before it, change the y toi and add es.

lady/ladies

sky/skies

story/stories

If a word ends in f orfe, change the f orfe to v and add es.

half/halves

wolf/wolves

life/lives

THE BIG E: Not all nouns ending in f drop the f and add ves. Exceptions include chefs, goofs, handkerchiefs, reefs, roofs, and staffs.

With most words ending in o, add es.

tomato/tomatoes

potato/potatoes

hero/heroes

THE BIG E: True to form, this rule has exceptions. “Ditto” becomes “dittos.” “Memo” becomes “memos.” The plural of “zero” is “zeros” or “zeroes.” Likewise, “hobo” can be “hobos” or “hoboes.”

For musical words ending in o, just add s.

piccolo/piccolos

cello/cellos

alto/altos

Philip loves the principle of quality writing. (Not, principal—see here.)

Some plurals don’t follow these rules:

Singular

Plural

cupful

cupfuls or cupsful

Grammy

Grammys or Grammies

hoof

hooves or hoofs

Kennedy

Kennedys

mouse

mice (for the rodent); mice or mouses (for the computer mouse)

treasury

treasuries (but “treasurys” for government securities)

thank-you

thank-yous (the notes)

Plurals with Contractions

To create plurals of contractions, simply add s to the contractions. In a Beetle Bailey cartoon by Mort Walker, General Halftrack shouts at Beetle, “No ifs, ands, or buts!” Beetle retorts, “How about some can’ts, won’ts, or don’ts?”

Plurals and Incorrect Apostrophes (See apostrophes, and possessives.)

Don’t use apostrophes to create plurals. Apostrophes show possession.

Right

Wrong

Plurals: Use No Apostrophes

These Apostrophes Don’t Belong

Employees Only

Employee’s Only

Empty cans here

Empty can’s here

Bouquets, $5.00

Bouquet’s, $5.00

Open Weekends

Open Weekend’s

Right

Jane sewed Tarzan’s leopard suits.

Wrong

Jane sewed Tarzan’s leopard suit’s.

? Why?

“Suits” is plural, not possessive. No apostrophe is needed.

Jerry golfs well. (Not, good—see here.)

Plurals of Proper Nouns

Many people think that plurals of proper nouns need an apostrophe before the s, for example, Coke’s, Chevy’s, or Democrat’s. That’s not so. Just write Cokes, Chevys, and Democrats.What’s wrong on this invitation?

To the Parker’s

The card was meant for all the Parkers, not just one Parker. Make this a simple plural. Use no possessive apostrophe.

To the Parkers

If something belongs to the Parkers, put the possessive apostrophe after the s that makes “Parker” plural. (See possessives.)

the Parkers’ plastic cow collection

Plurals of Names Ending in s (See possessives.)

If a proper noun ends in s, add es to make it plural.

The Haases gathered in Chicago for a reunion.

Plurals of Compound Nouns

Some words add s to the most important word to make it plural.

Singular

Plural

attorney general

attorneys general (not attorney generals)

Chamber of Commerce

Chambers of Commerce (not Chamber of Commerces)

chief-of-staff

chiefs-of-staff (not chief-of-staffs)

commander in chief (no hyphens)

commanders in chief

mother-in-law

mothers-in-law (not mother-in-laws)

passerby

passersby (not passerbys)

right-of-way

rights-of-way (not right-of-ways)

runner-up

runners-up (not runner-ups)

Use a current dictionary to check noun plurals.

Ashford outperformed his peers. (Not, piers—see here.)

THE BIG E: There are some times, very rare, when an apostrophe helps readers to understand that a word is plural. “Do,” for example, can be written “do’s” in the plural (as in “do’s and don’ts”). But because the meaning was clear, word maven Theodore Bernstein titled one of his books Dos, Don’ts and Maybes of English Usage. (See apostrophes.)

POSSESSIVES (See pronouns as possessives.)

How handy, alphabetically speaking, that the topic of possessives follows plurals. Remember, plurals show more than one. Possessives use apostrophes to show ownership.

Here’s how to make words possessive.

Making Singular Words Possessive

If a word, name, acronym, or initialism is singular, just add ’s.

the violin’s strings

my teddy bear’s tutu

Skyla’s Babysitting Service

Eudora Welty’s writing

Citigroup’s president

Nasa’s next launch.

The CEO’s battered pickup truck attests to his frugality.

With most singular nouns ending in s, add ’s.

kiss’s imprint

grass’s dead spots

bus’s exhaust

Four hundred children went on Mother Jones’s march.

Don Imus’s ranch is for children with cancer.

THE BIG E: When a singular name that ends in s is followed by a word beginning with s, it’s okay to use the apostrophe only (too many s sounds):

Charles’ sundae

Glynnis’ sarcasm

With religious or historical names of two or more syllables ending in s, just use an apostrophe after the s.

Ulysses’ journey

Moses’ vision

Jesus’ disciples

(But, Zeus’s thunderbolt, because “Zeus” is one syllable.)

The peacocks preened themselves. (Not, theirselves—see here.)

DID YOU KNOW? To show joint ownership, add ’s to the last word only. For individual ownership, add ’s to each word.

Pierce and Jasmine’s romance fizzled.

Leander’s and Zilphy’s bathing outfits matched.

Making Plural Words Possessive

Some plural nouns don’t end in s. Just add ’s to make such words possessive.

Plural

Plural Possessive

children

children’s swim floats

oxen

oxen’s yokes

women

women’s weight training

To make plural nouns ending in s possessive, add an apostrophe after the s.

roller coasters

roller coasters’ dips and turns

suitcases

suitcases’ tags

eclairs

eclairs’ custard filling

How does possession work with names? Let’s say that the Owenses have bought a yacht. The name “Owens” has already been made plural with es: Owenses. Just add an apostrophe at the end: the Owenses’ yacht.

The Owenses’ yacht sailed into Boston Harbor.

Don and Fred sell Imus Brothers’ Coffee.

TIP: With nouns ending in s, don’t confuse the singular possessive with the plural possessive.

Tom Hanks’s (singular possessive) role in Cast Away

but

the Coombses’ (plural possessive) new house

And never write “Charles Dicken’s Christmas Carol.” (That would mean “A Christmas Carol by Charles Dicken”! It should be “Charles Dickens’s Christmas Carol.”)

Where’s the prom? (Not, Where’s the prom at?—see here.)

Placing the Possessive Apostrophe

Many people simply guess about where to place apostrophes to show possession. Instead of the singular possessive “Bill Nye’s Tornado Model of Science,” they incorrectly write “Bill Nyes’ Tornado Model of Science.” For the plural possessive “the Green Bay Packers’ defense,” they incorrectly write “the Green Bay Packer’s defense.”

If placing the possessive apostrophe poses problems for you, take a look at these three methods.

Method One: The Two-Step Tango

1. Decide if the word is singular or plural.

singular: helicopter

plural: helicopters

2. Add the mark of possession at the end of the word.

singular: helicopter’s flight

plural: helicopters’ flights

Method Two: Draw an Arrow

Miss Hoezel, a wonderful eighth-grade English teacher, taught the arrow method for making words possessive.

1. Decide if the word is singular or plural, then draw a line under it.

one piglet curly tail

ten piglets curly tails

2. Where the line ends, draw an “up” arrow.

one piglet↑ curly tail

ten piglets↑ curly tails

3. Make an apostrophe at the tip of the arrow! (Add s to singular words.)

one piglet↑’s curly tail

ten piglets↑’ curly tails

Method Three: Say “of the” for Ownership

Switch the words around and say “of the” with the noun you want to make possessive. The apostrophe goes at the end of the noun that follows “of the.”

Singular Nouns

Dog: Make “the bowl of the → dog” “the dog’s bowl.”

Superstar: Make “the trophies of the → superstar” “the superstar’s trophies.”

To us lab nerds, rats are vital. (Not, we lab nerds—see here.)

Plural Nouns

Dogs: Make “the bowls of the → dogs” “the dogs’ bowls.”

Superstars: Make “the trophies of the → superstars” “the superstars’ trophies.”

PREDICATE (See sentences, and subject.)

A sentence has two main parts: a subject and a predicate. The subject tells who or what a sentence or clause is about. The predicate is the verb, plus any other words linked to the verb (direct objects, adverbs, adjectives). It helps to know that the word “predicate” comes from Latin and means “what is said about what comes before.” The predicate often describes what the subject of a sentence is doing. Predicates can be:

Simple (one word: a verb).

The teen triumphed (simple predicate).

Complete (a verb plus its objects and modifiers).

Kristen kicked the winning goal (complete predicate).

Compound (two or more verbs or verb phrases and their modifiers).

Esmerelda sells makeup on the Internet and hosts a talk show (compound predicate).

PREDICATE ADJECTIVES (See linking verbs.)

Adjectives modify, so think of a predicate adjective as one that modifies the subject of a sentence. Joined to the subject by a linking verb, words in the predicate complete the meaning of the subject. Linking verbs include be (am, is, are, was, were … ), become, seem, appear, feel, look, taste, smell, and sound.

Dracula’s fangs (subject) looked (linking verb) creepy (predicate adjective) at night.

(The adjective “creepy” complements the subject “fangs.”)

To Nathan, liver (subject) tastes (linking verb) yucky (predicate adjective).

(The adjective “yucky” complements the subject “liver.”)

Eight Sabots sailed in today’s race. (Not, 8 Sabots—see here.)

Engineers are (linking verb) analytical (predicate adjective).

(The adjective “analytical” complements the subject “engineers.”)

PREDICATE NOUNS (See linking verbs, and subject-verb agreement.)

Predicate nouns are single words or groups of words in the predicate that relate to the subject of a sentence. Like predicate adjectives, predicate nouns are joined to the subject by linking verbs.

Joel (subject) has become (linking verb) a Nature Conservancy board member (predicate noun).

Whales (subject) are (linking verb) mammals (predicate noun).

PREFIXES, ROOTS, AND SUFFIXES (See hyphens)

Ready? Get out your decoder rings! Knowing the meanings of prefixes, roots, and suffixes is like knowing a secret code. When you’re familiar with word parts drawn from Greek and Latin, or from German, Spanish, Arabic, French, and other languages, you can often figure out the meaning of difficult English words. (Etymology is the study of the origin and development of words.)

Prefixes are beginning word parts: re- (reapply), dis- (dishonest), mid- (mid-calf).

Roots are basic word elements: hydro (hydroelectric), pod (tripod), graph (autograph).

Suffixes are ending word parts: -cracy (democracy), -less (clueless), -ment (government).

Knowing the inside story on words can be magical. Astronauts, for instance, are “star sailors” (astro = “star” + naut = “sailor”).

Prefixes

Pre- means “before”; prefixes go before a root. Prehistoric animals lived before recorded history. Think pregame, preview, and preheat.

De- means “from” or “away.” “Defrost” means “to remove frost from.” A dehumidifier takes water from the air.

Anti- means “against.” Think of your car’s antifreeze.

I hope to see Gust soon. (Not, Hopefully, I’ll see—see here.)

Meso-, meaning “middle,” can tip you off to the meaning of “mesosphere” (the middle layer of five layers of the earth’s atmosphere).

THE BIG E: The prefix in- sometimes means “not,” as in “inhospitable.” But surprisingly, “flammable” and “inflammable” mean the same thing: “able to burn.”

DID YOU KNOW? The prefix bi- means “two.” Think “bicycle” or “biceps.” Bi- can also mean “twice each” or “every two.” Be sure you know if a “bimonthly” meeting means “twice a month” or “every other month.” Why not label the meeting “twice a month” or “every other month” instead?

Hyphens with Prefixes (See also hyphens.)

Only hyphenate words with prefixes, such as non-, pre-, and un- when what follows the prefix is capitalized: non-Italian, pre-Elvis, un-American, non-European.

Capitalize prefixes only when they fall at the beginning of a sentence, when prefixes are part of a proper compound word, or when prefixes appear in a title.

Pre-prom jitters tax sweat glands. (beginning of sentence)

“Anti-Fashion Police Parade” (title)

Put a hyphen after the prefix when prefixes suggest a span of time.

pre- and post-game shows

mid- to late 1980s

(Note the space after pre- and mid-. If “and post-” and “to late” were vacuumed out, these would read “pre-game shows” and “mid-1980s.”)

Roots

Think of a root as the base of a word. Rhino means “nose.” Ceros means “horn.” A rhinoceros has a horn on its nose. Aqua and hydr mean “water.” Think of “aquarium” and “fire hydrant.” Ped and pod mean “foot.” Think of “pedestrian” and “tripod.”

The roots graph and gram mean “write, written.” Combine graph and gram with auto- (“self”), photo- (“light”), or tele- (“far”) and you get “autograph” (“self-written”—your signature), “photograph” (“written with light”), or “telegram” (“written from afar”).

You can decode harder words, too. The root arthr means “joint.” The suffix -itis means “inflammation.” “Arthritis” is inflammation of the joint. “Rhinitis” is inflammation of the nose or its membranes. Add the prefix acro- (“high, top”) to the root phobia (“fear of”), and you get “acrophobia” (“fear of heights”).

Take that jalopy to the junkyard. (Not, Bring—see here.)

David’s acrophobia made him clutch Jane in the glass elevator.

Suffixes

Suffixes are word endings. Simple suffixes include -ed, -ing, and -ly. The suffix -ant means “a person or thing that does.”

An applicant applies.

A contestant competes in a contest.

A lubricant, like WD-40, lubricates.

Other suffixes include -orama (“view”) and -fer (“bear, carry”). Combined with pan- (“all”), or trans- (“across”), you get “panorama” and “transfer.”

To learn more about roots, prefixes, and suffixes, check an up-to-date dictionary or the Internet. (Also see More Grammar Resources).

PREPOSITIONS (See phrasal prepositions.)

Prepositions (pre- + “position”) take a position before a noun or pronoun. They can show position or time, or they can indicate a comparison or connection. (Prepositions can also show relationships or manner.)

The Insta-Cam caught both of you. (Not, the both—see here.)

Use the “plane and cloud” trick above to help you remember most prepositions. The plane can fly near the cloud, by the cloud, above the cloud, into the cloud, through the cloud, under the cloud, over the cloud …

Position Prepositions

These are heady good times for Mike Piazza, the Mets’ star catcher.

Karrie Webb’s golf ball sailed over the sand trap.

Catherine’s Counterpanes exhibit hung on the gallery wall.

Some prepositions, such as “beside” and “toward,” have an s form: “besides” and “towards.” The preposition “toward” is used more often in American English and “towards” in British English. (See beside, besides.)

Time Prepositions

about

after

before

during

since

until

The five-meter snail race lasted about three hours.

After his military career, Dwight Eisenhower became president.

Comparison Prepositions (See among, between, and as, like.)

as

like

unlike

between

Like Houdini, David Copperfield is a great escape artist.

Unlike Aunt Blanche, Ben had no idea how to use jumper cables.

Bucky and Satchel often clash. (Not, clashes—see here.)

Connector Prepositions

Kirsten served chicken breast dripping with avocado sauce.

Everyone fits in the van except Sugar, our Great Dane.

Prepositional Phrases

A prepositional phrase combines a preposition with one or more nouns or pronouns. The nouns or pronouns that follow prepositions are called objects of prepositions.

underneath (preposition) his cloak (object—noun) to (preposition) Manny, Moe, and Jack (object—nouns)

for them (preposition)(object—pronoun)like him and her (preposition) (object—pronouns)

Remember! Prepositions take the objective form of pronouns. (See Chart 2.)

To End or Not to End?

This is the sort of English up with which I will not put.

—Winston Churchill

There used to be a firm rule about never ending a sentence with a preposition. That rule has relaxed. Sentences rearranged to avoid a preposition at the end can sound huffy and overblown, as in Churchill’s spoof above.

I can’t eat marinated herring anymore. (Not, no more—see here.)

In informal speech and writing, use common sense. These sentences are fine:

Who did Minnie Driver study with?

Which state are you from?

Which bucket should I haul the oysters in?

In formal speech and writing, it’s still best to avoid ending a sentence with a preposition.

With whom did you study elocution?

From which satellite did the signal originate?

In which garage should Chauncy park the Stutz Bearcat?

The Grammar Patrol does take a stand against these two constructions:

Where’s it at? (Say, “Where is it?”)

Where is he going to? (Say, “Where is he going?”)

Prepositions with Phrasals (See phrasal prepositions, and phrasal verbs.)

Some prepositions are made up of several words. (In Grammarspeak, they’re called “phrasal prepositions.”)

in the middle of

for the purpose of

Some verbs, called phrasal verbs, are made up of a verb and a specific preposition.

buckle up

turn in

Lend me your razor, please. (Not, loan—see here.)

PREVENTIVE, PREVENTATIVE

“Preventive” can be an adjective meaning “serving to prevent” or a noun meaning “an agent to prevent disease” or “a measure for preventing something.” Dictionaries do recognize the alternative “preventative,” but “preventive” is far more common.

Frieda uses duct tape as a wrinkle preventive.

PRONOUNS (For pronouns and linking verbs, see subject complements.)

Pronouns are noun substitutes. In sentences, a pronoun does the same job as the noun it replaces.

Stewart Pinkerton (noun) is the deputy managing editor of Forbes.

He (pronoun) is the deputy managing editor of Forbes.

Pronouns have number, person, and case.

Number: singular or plural

Person: first, second, or third

Case: subjective (in Grammarspeak, “nominative”), objective, or possessive

Pronouns have different forms, depending on the nouns they replace.

Pronouns as Subjects

Subjective pronouns act as subjects. They substitute for nouns that are subjects of clauses or complete sentences.

Rick’s an eminent oceanographer. (Not, imminent—see here.)

Subjective Pronouns (Chart 1)

Person

Singular

Plural

First

I

we

Second

you

you

Third

he, she, it (who, whoever)

they

If a pronoun acts as a subject, use the subjective forms found in Chart 1.

Right

Wrong

He and I snorkeled.

Me and him snorkeled.

Did you and she fight?

Did you and her fight?

Carl and they already left.

Carl and them already left.

We skiers love cocoa.

Us skiers love cocoa.

Pedro and she are engaged.

Her and Pedro are engaged.

TIP: Still puzzled? Vaccuum out extra words, leaving only the pronoun. Say, “I snorkeled,” not “Me snorkled.”

Pronouns as Objects

Objective pronouns act as objects. They substitute for nouns that are the objects of verbs or prepositions.

Objective Pronouns (Chart 2)

Person

Singular

Plural

First

me

us

Second

you

you

Third

him, her, it (whom, whomever)

them

If a pronoun acts as an object of a verb or preposition, use the objective forms found in Chart 2.

Marvin plowed farther than Donnie. (Not, further—see here.)

Object of a Verb

Right

Wrong

Photograph Elmo and me.

Photograph Elmo and I.

Take Michael or her.

Take Michael or she.

Call Dr. Joy and him.

Call Dr. Joy and he.

TIP: Again, vacuum out extra words. Say, “Photograph me,” not “Photograph I.”

Object of a Preposition

Right

Wrong

It’s up to us point guards.

It’s up to we point guards.

Between you and me …

Between you and I …

This candy’s for them and Harry.

This candy’s for they and Harry.

DID YOU KNOW? Use the objective form if the pronoun is the object of an infinitive:

to introduce him

to woo her

to marry them

Pronouns as Possessives

Possessive pronouns show possession.

Possessive Pronouns (Chart 3)

Person

Singular

Plural

First

my, mine

our, ours

Second

your, yours

your, yours

Third

his, her, hers, its (whose)

their, theirs (whose)

To show ownership, use the possessive pronoun forms in Chart 3. Notice how some forms of possessive pronouns stay the same.

This is his Frisbee.

This Frisbee is his.

Jan ate fewer shrimp than Keith. (Not, less—see here.)

Other pronouns change form, depending on how they’re used in a sentence.

These are my bagels.

These bagels are mine.

These are her pliers.

These pliers are hers.

You ate our radishes!

Those radishes were ours.

Is that your scooter?

That scooter is yours.

It’s their secret recipe.

The secret recipe is theirs.

TIP: Don’t confuse the possessive pronoun “its” with the contraction “it’s.” Possessive its never splits.

“Viagra and Its Fiscal Impact”

not

“Viagra and It’s Fiscal Impact”

Possessive Pronouns and Gerunds (See verbs.)

Remember gerunds? They’re the ing forms of verbs, which act as nouns. A good rule of thumb has been to use a possessive pronoun before a gerund. Nowadays, not everybody follows this rule. But the Grammar Patrol still prefers to use the possessive forms of pronouns with gerunds.

Janet appreciated his calling home. (Not, him calling.)

Mom hated the thought of their leaving the nest. (Not, them leaving.)

The boss okayed our going to Sweden. (Not, us going.)

“Self”-Ending Pronouns

“Self”-ending pronouns end in self or selves and must refer to someone or something in the same clause or sentence. (In Grammarspeak, “self”-ending pronouns are called “reflexives” or “reflexive pronouns.”)

I pulled the taffy myself.

Sandra mixed the glazes herself.

Dr. Powell pored over the day’s reports. (Not, poured—see here.)

Pronouns That End in “Self” (Chart 4)

Person

Singular

Plural

First

myself

ourselves

Second

yourself

yourselves

Third

himself, herself, itself (never hisself)

themselves (never themself or theirselves)

Pronouns ending in self can also emphasize:

Troy Aikman himself ← helps football stars find sponsors.

Common “Self”-Ending Pronoun Bloopers

People often use “self”-ending pronouns where they don’t belong:

Annie and I are in charge of the Dunk-the-Teacher Booth.

not

Annie and myself are in charge of the Dunk-the-Teacher Booth.

Unless a “self”-ending pronoun refers to someone or something in the same clause or sentence, use a subjective or objective pronoun instead.

Right

Hand your boarding passes to me.

Wrong

Hand your boarding passes to myself.

? Why?

This airline employee needs to use the objective pronoun “me,” the object of the preposition “to.” “Myself” doesn’t refer to anything in the sentence.

Indefinite Pronouns

Indefinite pronouns substitute for nouns that refer in general to people, places, things, ideas, and qualities. Some indefinite pronouns always take singular verbs. Others always take plural verbs. Some indefinite pronouns can be singular or plural, depending on the words that follow. Substitute “he” or “she” or other pronouns to test the verb form you choose.

As I said, eggnog’s not exactly lowfat. (Not, Like—see here.)

Singular Indefinite Pronouns

Use a singular verb with these pronouns: anybody, anyone, each, either, every, everybody, everyone, neither, nobody, no one, nothing, one.

Everyone knows young William is Prince Charming. (He or she knows young William is Prince Charming.)

Nobody likes tired lettuce. (He or she likes tired lettuce.)

Plural Indefinite Pronouns

Use a plural verb with these pronouns: both, few, many, several.

Many are mystery buffs. (They are mystery buffs.)

Few are true sleuths. (They are true sleuths.)

Singular or Plural Indefinite Pronouns

Memorize these five versatile pronouns: all, any, most, some and the prickly none. These indefinite pronouns can be singular if singular words follow them, or plural, if plural words follow them:

All

All of the red licorice has vanished.

(“Licorice” is singular. It has vanished.)

All of those lava lamps are hideous.

(“Lamps” is plural. They are hideous.)

“Breaking the Code was stupendous!” (Not, stupendous”! —see here.)

Any

If any of Stephanie’s birthday cake is missing, you’re in trouble.

(“Cake” is singular. It is missing.)

Any of the wedding guests could protest the match.

(“Guests” is plural. They could protest.)

Most

Most of the trail is open.

(“Trail” is singular. It is open.)

Most of the rides are tame.

(“Rides” is plural. They are tame.)

Some

Some of the shipment was damaged.

(“Shipment” is singular. It was damaged.)

Some of the wilder fans honk horns.

(“Fans” is plural. They honk.)

None

None of the escargot paté is left.

(“Paté” is singular. Not any of it is left.)

“None” is singular when it means “not any of it” or “none of it.”

None of the jugglers use bowling balls.

(“Jugglers” is plural. They use bowling balls.)

When “none” means “not any” or “none of them,” use a plural verb.

TIP: If by “none,” you mean “not one,” then say, “not one.”

Not one of the belly dancers wears polyester.

Even though belly dancers is plural, “not one” is singular. Use a singular verb. Say, “Not one wears polyester,” not “Not one wear polyester.”

The feisty clerk’s nickname is “Spitfire.” (Not, “Spitfire”. —see here.)

Demonstrative Pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns demonstrate: They point out specific nouns. Demonstrative pronouns include this, these, that, and those.

this stock option

these career decisions

that cranberry bog

those swimsuits

Interrogative Pronouns

Interrogative pronouns ask questions: what, which, who, whom, and whose.

What is calamari—squid or octopus?

Who swiped my Buena Vista Social Club CD?

Whose dirty socks are in my drawer?

Relative Pronouns (See pronoun-antecedent agreement.)

Relative pronouns show relationships: that, what, which, who, whom, and whose. These pronouns relate to a noun that appears earlier (an antecedent) in the sentence. Clauses that start with a relative pronoun serve as adjectives.

The maniac ← who called was my boss.

The kazoo concert, ← which took place Saturday, annoyed the neighbors.

That or Which?

The pronouns “that” and “which” are often confused. The pronoun you choose depends on the type of clause the pronoun introduces.

Use “that” with essential clauses.

Use the pronoun “that” with essential clauses—those that give information essential to the sentence. “That” clauses have no commas. (In Grammarspeak, essential clauses are called “restrictive clauses.”)

The skunk ← that dug under the fence (essential clause) ate my parsley.

Use “which” with nonessential clauses.

Use the pronoun “which” with nonessential clauses—those that contain information not needed for the sentence to make sense. “Which” clauses have commas. (In Grammarspeak, nonessential clauses are called “nonrestrictive clauses.”)

The musical Lion King, ← which was first a movie, (nonessential clause) starts Friday.

Potato chips are Ron’s only vice. (Not, vise—see here.)

That or Who?

Officially, both “that” and “who” can refer to people. But since “that” can also refer to things, the Grammar Patrol recommends using “who” for people.

Campers who skinny-dip should do so after dark.

The tweezers that I always use have disappeared.

Who or Whom?

Who—Always a Subject

Use “who” for the subject of a sentence or clause. (See Chart 1.) A verb follows the pronoun “who.”

Who wants (subject of sentence) (verb) some key lime pie?

Joanne, who planted (subject of clause)(verb) all the flowers, is an ace gardener.

The “who” could trip you up in this example:

Sidney asked about who did (subject of clause)(verb) the driving.

“Who” is the subject of the clause “who did the driving,” not the object of the preposition “about.” Instead, the whole clause—“who did the driving”—is the object of the preposition “about.”

The herd of Holsteins heads for the barn. (Not, head—see here.)

Whom—Always an Object

Use “whom” as the object of a verb or a preposition. (See Chart 2.)

Nortel hired whom? (verb) (direct object of a verb)

For whom (preposition) (object of a preposition) does Tommy Hilfiger make clothes? All ages.

Tricks for Deciding on Who or Whom

With longer or more complex sentences, the “who or whom?” puzzle grows.

Rearrange the sentence.

Felix was the man whom Oscar called.

Rearranged: Oscar (subject) called whom? (direct object)

Substitute a different pronoun for “who” or “whom.”

Use “he, him” or “she, her” in place of “who, whom” to see which pronoun to use. (Like “who,” “he” and “she” are subjects. Like “whom,” “him” and “her” are objects.)

Lee called (who or whom) about the cruise? (whom)

Lee called (she or her) about the cruise? (her)

Omit words to help you decide.

Leave out phrases like “he knows,” “I believe,” “she thinks,” and “they say” to help you decide on “who” or “whom.”

I’m studying Truman, (who or whom) I believe was president after Roosevelt.

I’m studying Truman, who [I believe] was president after Roosevelt.

MNEMONIC (MEMORY AID): “Him,” “them,” and “whom” all end in m, and are all objective.

Add implied words.

Implied words can help you choose the right pronoun (subjective or objective).

Sancho plays the bassoon better than she [does].

Steffi likes tennis better than I [do].

Steffi likes tennis better than [she likes] me.

I can hardly wait for graduation. (Not, can’t hardly—see here.)

PRONUNCIATION

We’re bombarded daily by mispronounced words. Take “nuclear.” On TV and radio, we hear “noo´ cue ler” for the correct “noo´ clee er.” There’s a “clee,” not a “cue” in “nuclear”!

Even the word “pronunciation” causes problems. There’s a “nun,” not a “noun” in this word. Say, “pro nun´ see ay´ shun,” not “pro noun´ see ay´ shun.” This mix-up happens because the word “pronounce” does have a “noun” sound.

We strongly recommend Charles Harrington Elster’s books on pronunciation, particularly his Big Book of Beastly Mispronunciations.

Words can be funny when mispronounced. Some people call Marie Callender’s pie shop Marie Colander’s. (Handy for rinsing pie berries.) Here are other funny pronunciation bloopers. (Accented syllables are marked.)

Word

Right

Wrong

epitome

eh pih´ tuh mee

eh´ pih tome (rhymes with “Rome”)

gnome

nome

guh nome´

gnu

noo

guh noo´

paradigm

par´ uh dime (or par´ uh dim)

pair´ uh dih gum or pair´ uh dih jum

Some words are pronounced differently depending on their part of speech.

conflict

noun (con´ flict): a clash, fighting

verb (con flict´): to clash, to differ

tear

noun (rhymes with “ear”): a drop of fluid from the eye

noun (rhymes with “bear”): a rip

verb (rhymes with “bear”): to rip

Some confusing words are spelled almost alike and can also cause mix-ups in speech. An announcer on a classical music station said, “Let this music of Mozart envelope you.” (She meant “envelop.”)

envelope

noun (en´ veh lope): a flat, paper container

envelop

verb (en veh´ lup): to enclose

A number of cruise passengers overeat. (Not, overeats—see here.)

These measurement words are often pronounced incorrectly:

height

Say, “hite” (Not, “hithe”: “Height” does not end in th.)

length

Say, “lengkth” (Not, “lenth”: Give the g a tip of the hat.)

width

Say, “width” (Not, “with”: Pronounce the d.)

Even as Drabble reminds his sister about the hard c sound in “picture,” Penny knows that baseball’s Hideo Nomo is a “pitcher,” not a “picture.”

Check this list of words that are often mispronounced. (Accented syllables are marked.)

Word

Right

Wrong

accept

ack sept´

us sept´

accessible

ak seh´ sih ble

us seh´ sih ble

across

uh cross´

uh crosst (Don’t end with t.)

ask, asked

ask, askt

ax, axed, or ast

athlete

ath´ lete

a´ thuh lete

camaraderie

com´ mah rah´ deh ree (five syllables)

com rah´ deh ree (not four syllables)

couldn’t

cood´ unt (two syllables)

koont (not one syllable)

centimeter

sen´ tih mee ter

sahn´ tih mee ter

consonant stuh nut

con´ seh nunt

con´ stuh nunt or con´ stuh

coup (deed or feat)

koo

coop or cue (Don’t say the p.)

Tom removed the door from its frame. (Not, it’s—see here.)

coupe (two-door car)

coop or koo pay´

cyoup

didn’t

did´ unt

dint (not one syllable)

dissect

dih sect´

die sect´ or die´ sect

effect

eh fect´

ee´ fect

eighty

ate´ ee (Say the t.)

aid´ ee

et cetera

et seh´ tuh ruh

eck seh´ tuh ruh (There’s no “eck” in et cetera.)

foliage

foe´ lee ij (three syllables)

foy´ lee ij or foe´ lij (not two syllables)

forte (strong point)

fort (or, frequently, for´ tay)

for´ teh or for tay´ (Don’t emphasize the second syllable.)

grievous)

gree´ vus (two syllables)

gree´ vee us (not three syllables)

important, importance

im por´ tant, im por´ tense

im por´ dant, im por´ dense

infuriate

in fyur´ ee ate (four syllables)

in fyur´ ee or ate (not five syllables)

intact

in tact´ (Say the end t.)

in tack´

jewelry

joo´ wul ree

joo´ luh ree

library

lie´ brair ee

lie´ bair ee

mathematics

math´ eh mat´ icks

math mat´ icks

mischievous

mis´ chih vus (three syllables with emphasis the first)

mis chee´ vee us (not four syllables; emphasize on second)

picture

pick´ ture

pitch´ er (Don’t say “pitch.”)

poinsettia

poyn seh´ tee uh (four syllables)

poyn seh´ tuh (not three syllables) or point seh tuh (no t sound)

Meet me at the ATM on San Dieguito. (Not, A.T.M. —see here.)

salmon

saa´ muhn (as in “Sam,” silent l)

sal´ muhn (Don’t say the l.)

short-lived

short-lived (long i)

short-lihved (not short i)

similar

sih´ muh ler

sih´ myuh ler

strict

strihkt (say the hard c and t)

strick

template

tem´ pliht

tem´ plate*

verbiage

vir´ bee ij (three syllables)

ver´ bij (not two syllables)

versus

ver´ sus (two syllables)

verse (not one syllable)

vice versa

vie´ seh ver´ seh

vice ver´ seh

*Template: A few dictionaries now recognize the long a pronunciation of “-plate.” We go with the majority that list only “tem´ pliht.”

PUN (See figures of speech.)

PUNCTUATION (See individual marks of punctuation by name.)

Punctuation is a code to help readers ride smoothly through writing. Think of punctuation marks as traffic signals:

I love For Better or for Worse. (Not, “For Better or for Worse”—see here.)

.

Period = Stop Sign

Come to a full stop. Then go on—no sliding through.

,

Comma = Flashing Yellow Light

Slow down, look left and right, then continue.

;

Semicolon = Flashing Red Light

Stop briefly; forge ahead.

:

Colon = Arrow or Road Sign

Listen up! What follows explains or adds information.

( ) and —

Parentheses and Dashes = Detour

Take a quick detour—then proceed.

Q

QUALIFIERS (See modifiers.)

Parent: “Did you pick up the dog poop, dear?”

Teen: “Kind of, in a way, a little, sort of …”

Qualifiers modify meaning. They are words or groups of words that limit or describe other words.

sometimes flirty

rather plain

quite snobbish

a bit hairy

Qualifiers are often vague, wishy-washy, nonspecific. Overusing qualifiers can weaken your writing, reducing clarity and sharpness of detail. Be “clear,” not “pretty clear.”

won in a very real sense

pretty much over it

sort of overdrawn

QUESTION MARKS

A question mark ( ? ) signals that a sentence asks a question. Put one space after a question mark at the end of a sentence. Do not follow a question mark with a period: Is that so? (Not, is that so?.)

Ad: Dogs spayed here. (Not, spade—see here.)

Direct Questions

Use a question mark in sentences that ask a direct question. The interrogative pronouns who, what, which, where, and why often indicate a question. So does the verb “do.”

Who ate all the Krispy Kremes?

Do you watch Jeopardy?

Direct questions can fall within a larger sentence, especially when people are thinking something to themselves. When that happens, place the question mark right after the question itself. Don’t use quotation marks.

Was that a toupee on Dudley’s head? pondered Wanda.

Alicia wondered, Would a toga be right for the costume party? (Note the capital w on “would,” the start of the question itself.)

Indirect Questions

Sometimes a question is implied but not asked directly. Indirect questions often express inner thoughts. Because an indirect question is a statement, follow it with a period, not a question mark. Leave quotation marks off when the question is indirect.

The question is whether lemon juice will enhance this perm mixture.

Colleen wondered if her fruitcakes were done.

The teacher asked if the dog ate my homework once again.

MNEMONIC (MEMORY AID): Indirect questions state. Statements end with periods.

Rhetorical Questions

Rhetorical questions are ones for which you don’t expect answers. They take a question mark.

How many hockey games can there be in one weekend?

Is it any wonder that the seams burst?

TIP: Don’t overuse rhetorical questions.

A Series of Questions

When several questions occur within one sentence, use question marks, but only capitalize the first word of the sentence.

The crooks’ alibis didn’t jibe. (Not, jive—see here.)

Who does Georgette think she is? queen? empress? ruler of the universe?

Questions and Quoted Words

If a question applies only to the quoted words, put the question mark inside the end quotation mark.

“O Romeo, Romeo, wherefore art thou Romeo?” whispered Juliet.

DID YOU KNOW? By saying “wherefore,” a distraught Juliet is not asking where Romeo is. She’s asking why he is a Montague, her family’s sworn enemy, and not someone whom she could marry.

Questions Within Questions

If a sentence not only asks a direct question but also ends in a word or phrase that includes a question mark, use only one question mark.

Have you seen Who Framed Roger Rabbit? (Not, Rabbit??)

Questions Inside Parentheses

When a question falls inside a parenthetical thought in a sentence, you don’t capitalize the beginning of the question. Do put a question mark at the end of the question.

We asked applicants to submit references (who wouldn’t?) and a credit summary.

QUOTATION MARKS

The cop implied Tilly was speeding. (Not, inferred—see here.)

Quotation marks ( “ ” ) have several jobs. Use them:

To quote someone’s exact words.

“You are my own sweet lamb chop,” said Irving.

To enclose quotations.

“Twas brillig and the slithy toves / Did gyre and gimble in the wabe …” (“Jabberwocky,” Lewis Carroll)

To enclose titles of shorter works. (See italics, for longer works.)

Short poems: “Touch Me” (Stanley Kunitz)

Songs: “Fly Away” (John Denver)

Stories: “Three Billy Goats Gruff”

Short stories: “Teaching Luther to Cook” (Bailey White, Mama Makes Up Her Mind)

Articles: “Wallflowers in a Hot Market” (Bob Howard, Los Angeles Times)

Chapters of books: “The House of Fear” (Robert Louis Stevenson, Kidnapped)

Short musical compositions: “Adagio for Strings” (Samuel Barber)

Individual episodes of radio or TV shows: “Radar’s Report” (M*A*S*H)

To set off individual words, phrases, or nicknames. (Nicknames, also called “sobriquets,” sometimes appear in quotation marks.)

Veteran golfer Tom Walters called Tiger Woods “supernatural,” the best in the world.

Gary Paulsen’s “tame house dog” was half wolf.

Jesse (“the Body”) Ventura was elected governor of Minnesota.

If the nickname is used as a renamer (appositive), you don’t need parentheses or quotation marks.

Jimmy Durante, the Schnoz, was a comedy legend.

Oliver shifted into listening mode. (Not, mood—see here.)

When you substitute a nickname for a person’s name, capitalize the nickname, but don’t use quotation marks.

Satchmo was known for his trumpet solos and gravelly voice.

Punctuation with Quotation Marks

Three inside-outside rules can help you punctuate with quotation marks.

1. Periods and commas always go inside quotation marks.

Henry said, “A runaway bull ended our picnic.” (Not, picnic”.)

The surfer pulled an “off the lip.” (Not, lip”.)

Amy’s airy office, “the treehouse,” (not, treehouse”,) was her refuge.

2. Colons and semicolons always go outside quotation marks.

Morris Munon was “FTA”: That’s “failure to appear” in bounty-hunter lingo.

—Hot Six, Janet Evanovich

The island get away was billed as a “pleasure trip”; it was more like an endurance test.

3. Question marks, dashes, and exclamation points can go inside or outside. Where you put them depends on what you mean to say.

When ?, —, ! Go Inside

Put these marks (? , —, !) inside the quotation marks if they apply only to the quoted material.

“…  ?”

“…  —”

“…  !”

My bulldog is so photogenic. (Not, photographic—see here.)

Question Mark Inside Quotation Marks

Put the question mark inside the end quotation mark when it only applies to the quoted material. Below, the question mark refers only to the song title. The sentence is a statement.

Ted’s favorite country song was “How Can I Heal My Boomerang Heart?” (Not, Heart”?)

Dash Inside Quotation Marks

When using a dash to show an interruption or hesitation in speech, put it inside the question mark.

“Annie! Call security! The gorilla has escap—” yelled the zookeeper.

End comma or no end comma? The Grammar Patrol finds that the dash alone is enough. Some usage experts recommend a comma after the dash: “ … escap—,” yelled …

Exclamation Point Inside Quotation Marks

When the exclamation point refers only to the quoted words, it goes inside the quotation mark.

Rich griped, “Those slobs splattered concrete all over the driveway!”

When ?, —, ! Go Outside

Put these marks (? , —, !) outside the quotation marks when they refer to more than the quoted material.

“…  ”?

“…  ”—

“…  ”!

Question Mark Outside Quotation Marks

When the whole sentence is a question, put the question mark outside the quotation mark.

Who said, “Nothing ventured, nothing gained”? (Not, gained?”)

Dash Outside Quotation Marks

Here, the dash separates the quoted words from the snide comment. Put the dash outside the quotation mark.

“I’ll never be caught”—a crook’s famous last words. (Not, —”)

Exclamation Points Outside Quotation Marks

The exclamation point applies to the whole statement. Put it outside the quotation mark.

He’ll never measure up to “Mr. Music”! (Not, “Mr. Music!”)

Sir Lawrence has a noble demeanor. (Not, nobel—see here.)

Quotation Marks with Individual Words

Highlight individual words with separate quotation marks.

Right

Alice Roosevelt had pets named “Josiah,” “Algonquin,” and “Emily Spinach.”

Wrong

Alice Roosevelt had pets named “Josiah, Algonquin, and Emily Spinach.”

? Why?

Set the pets’ names off individually to show that they are specific pets with individual names.

Quotation Marks with No and Yes

Don’t use quotation marks when using the words “no” and “yes” in a sentence unless they are part of a direct quotation.

Guilford said yes (not “yes”) to wearing Groucho glasses to chair the meeting.

Rosa Parks’s simple no (not “no”) has resounded over the decades.

“Yes,” cried Olivia, “I accept!”

Single Quotation Marks

Single quotation marks ( ‘ ’ ) help your reader spot quoted material inside of double quotation marks ( “ ” ). Follow the same inside-outside rules on this page with single quotation marks.

Single Quotation Marks with Periods and Commas

Periods and commas always go inside quotation marks, whether single or double.

Mark Twain said, “Only presidents, editors, and people with tapeworm have the right to use the editorial ‘we.’ ”

With regard to your account … (Not, regards—see here)

TIP: Single quotation marks and apostrophes look the same. Below, an apostrophe, not a single quotation mark, takes the place of the final g in “leaving.” The inside-ouside rules don’t apply. Put the period after the apostrophe, as you would after any word that ends a sentence:

Jimmy John muttered, “I’m leavin’.”

Single Quotation Marks with Question Marks

If the question mark applies to the whole question, not just the part in single quotation marks, put the question mark outside the single quotation mark.

“Didn’t they call Andrew Jackson ‘Old Hickory’?” Ted asked.

Single Quotation Marks with Exclamation Points

If the exclamation point applies only to words inside the single quotes, the exclamation point goes inside.

Malik exclaimed, “Toby said, ‘Get out!’ ” (Not, out’!” or out ’ ”!)

If the exclamation point applies to the whole sentence, not just the part in single quotation marks, put the exclamation point outside the single quotation mark.

“Don’t call me ‘Cupcake’!” yelled Grod the Terminator.

Spacing with Single and Double Quotation Marks

For clarity, put a space between single and double quotation marks: “ ‘ …’ ”

DID YOU KNOW? In the days of typewriters, quotation marks were straight up and down (" "). Only typesetters had access to the fancier curved marks (“ ”). With today’s word processors, you can set your preferences for “smart quotes,” also called “curly quotes.” These curve like 6s at the beginning of a quotation (“ or ‘). They curve like 9s at the end of a quotation (” or ’).

Do use straight quotes (’ or "), not curly quotes (‘ or “), to indicate feet and inches: 5’ 7". (The period goes outside here because the quotation mark indicates inches, not a direct quotation.)

The business is run by my partner and me. (Not, I—see here.)

R

REDUNDANCY

You can observe a lot by just watching.

—Yogi Berra

Redundancy is the unnecessary duplication of similar words or phrases.

Right

Mel’s cauliflower side dish was smelly as well as unromantic.

or

Mel’s cauliflower side dish was both smelly and unromantic.

Wrong

The cauliflower side dish was both smelly as well as unromantic.

? Why?

Don’t use “both” and “as well as” in same sentence. It’s redundant.

Avoid these other common redundancies.

added bonus

octagonal in shape

close proximity

the other alternative

déja vu all over again

refer back to

final result

stubborn in nature

free gift

true fact

in my own personal opinion

truly and sincerely

Neither Tim nor Gerry is here. (Not, are—see here.)

Banish redundancies like these:

as per our discussion (as we said)

Save 50% Off! (Save 50%! or 50% Off!)

3:00 A.M. in the morning (three o’clock in the morning or 3 A.M.)

sum total (Choose one or the other.)

each and every (Choose one or the other.)

same identical or exact same (“Identical” and “exact” say it all.)

consensus of opinion (“Consensus” means “an agreement of opinion.”)

The name of the show is called … (“The name of the show is …” or “The show is called …”)

The reason is because … (Use “The reason is …” or “Because …”)

What this is is … (This is …)

DID YOU KNOW? A related term is “pleonasm,” which means using too many words to express an idea, such as “at this point in time” for “now.” Sometimes a pleonasm is used for emphasis: We heard it with our own ears.

Redundancy and Abbreviations

Technically, “ATM machine,” “IPO offering,” “PIN number,” and “ISBN number” are redundant: “Automated Teller Machine machine,” “Initial Public Offering offering,” “Personal Identification Number number,” “International Standard Book Number number.”

Likewise, “Please RSVP” means “Please respond please.” (“RSVP” stands for the French répondez s’il vous plaît, meaning “Please respond.”)

REEK, WREAK

“To reek” means “to smell terrible.” “To wreak” means “to inflict or vent.” Both are pronounced “reek.”

Their dog Shiloh reeked after his encounter with a skunk.

Mr. Duffleberg wreaked his anger on his clerk, Ms. Mynchon.

TIP: Don’t confuse “wreak” and “wreck” (as in, “My car’s a wreck”).

A thunderstorm may wreak (not wreck) havoc on the Buick Invitational.

John’s supposed to go sailing. (Not, suppose to—see here.)

REGARD, REGARDS

“Regard” and “regards” have specific meanings. As a verb, “regard” means “to look at,” “consider in a particular way,” or “to hold in affection, esteem.” As a noun, “regard” can mean “a look or gaze” or “esteem, affection.” “Regards” are good wishes.

She regarded the burned roast with disgust.

My mother regards crossing guards and nurses’ aides as saints.

Grandmother held Eleanor Roosevelt in high regard.

Give my regards to Broadway.

“Regard” Phrases

The phrase “with regard to” means “concerning” or “regarding.” “With regard to,” “as regards,” and “in regard to” are common and correct in business writing. You can, however, simplify them: Just substitute “about” or “concerning.”

THE BIG E: No one said that English was easy. Do not use “with regards to” or “in regards to.”

REGIMEN, REGIMENT

A “regimen” is a “method or system of cure.” A “regiment” is a “unit of soldiers.”

For exercise, many adults are trying an outdoor skipping regimen.

Jackson rejoined his regiment at Camp Pendleton.

REGIONALISMS

Soda or pop?

Hot dish or casserole?

Sneakers or tennis shoes?

Supper or dinner?

Where people live affects the meaning and pronunciation of specific words and expressions. These variations, called regionalisms, are used most often in informal speech.

One North Carolina man told the Grammar Patrol that when his wife wants to go shopping he “carries [takes] her to the mall.”

“How romantic!” said Judith.

Minnesota and North Dakota residents are known to slip “So then,” “You betcha,” or “Oh, yah!” into sentences, with inflections that carry subtle differences in meaning. (For more on this, rent the movie Fargo.)

The alternative is to row across. (Not, other alternative—see here.)

Residents of Massachusetts may pronounce Harvard as “Hahvuhd,” Cuba as “Cuber,” and “park” as “pahk.”

Depending on geography, people either “hang up” at the end of a phone conversation or “shut off.”

RIGOROUS, VIGOROUS

“Rigorous” means “harsh” or “severe.” “Vigorous” means “strong, energetic, robust.” Both are adjectives.

The Guy Fawkes Trail is a rigorous hike.

For vigorous exercise, Kim and Mike play squash.

ROOTS (See prefixes, roots, and suffixes.)

RUN-ON SENTENCES (See incomplete sentences.)

S

SALIENT, SALINE

“Salient” means “jutting outward, noticeable, standing out from the rest, prominent”: a salient point, a salient angle. “Saline” means “salty.”

Our speaker made three salient points in 66 seconds!

Nurse Ratchet started Melvin on saline solution.

SEMANTICS

Eclectic or cluttered?

Plain or homespun?

Humid or sultry?

Dwindled or whittled down?

I had shown him my etchings last week. (Not, had showed—see here.)

Semantics is the study of word meanings. Learning the nuances of word meanings can prove challenging. One person may consider a house to be “cramped”; another person might see the same house as “cozy.”

Reading can help you fine-tune your vocabulary. A good dictionary will give you a sense of the subtle shades of meaning, feeling, or tone (nuance) among similar words or phrases.

The following semantic pairs are related—their meanings are similar, but not identical: “angry, livid”; “happy, ecstatic”; “loud, deafening”; “like, love.”

SEMICOLONS

Semicolons ( ; ) signal a stop. Put one space after a semicolon.

Use semicolons:

To link two closely related thoughts, usually two main (independent) clauses.

Rolling Readers raised reading scores dramatically; stronger school attendance was an unexpected bonus.

Jennifer has transformed her front yard; flowers bloom everywhere.

You could also turn these two thoughts into separate sentences.

Helmut has a screw loose. (Not, lose—see here.)

To separate a list of items that already includes commas, such as names and titles, cities and states, or cities and countries.

Congratulations to our new officers: Carolyn Kosonen, president; Jodie Shull, vice president; Suzan Wilson, treasurer; and Julia Ortinez Hansen, secretary.

The whirlwind, three-day tour includes London, England; Mont Saint Michel and Paris, France; and Frankfurt, Germany.

SENTENCES (See incomplete sentences; predicate; and sentences.)

A sentence expresses a complete thought. A sentence has two parts: a subject and a predicate.

Sentences do one of four jobs.

1. Declarative sentences make statements and end with a period.

Kristi and Som had a baby girl, Malia.

2. Imperative sentences give orders and end with a period or an exclamation point.

Tell that obnoxious bully to leave!

Hello. My name is Inigo Montoya. You killed my father. Prepare to die.

—The Princess Bride

“Tell” and “prepare” give orders. In both examples, the subject “you” is implied: You tell. You prepare. (See verbs.)

3. Interrogative sentences ask questions and end with a question mark.

Who was Isabella Rossellini’s mother? (Answer: Ingrid Bergman.)

4. Exclamatory sentences show feelings and end with an exclamation point.

Hey, Dad! Tony got a job modeling underwear!

Sentences can be simple, compound, or complex.

A simple sentence contains a subject and a predicate.

Avery (subject) smiles (predicate).

This club is too crowded! (Not, to or two—see here.)

Helen (subject) bakes pink meringue (predicate).

A compound sentence contains two, linked independent clauses (complete thoughts).

Both clauses have equal weight. Each can stand alone and still make sense. Create compound sentences by joining two complete sentences with a semicolon or with a coordinating conjunction (and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet).

She batted her eyelashes; he stopped in mid-sentence.

I am a bear of very little brain, and long words bother me.

—Winnie the Pooh

TIP: Use a comma to separate clauses in a compound sentence if the subject changes.

I’m going to the awards ceremony (independent clause), so (conjunction) I had my hair spikes waxed (independent clause).

A complex sentence contains an independent clause with one or more dependent clauses. (See clauses.)

As baby seals basked in the sun (dependent clause), their mothers fished in the cove (independent clause).

You’d take me salsa dancing (dependent clause) if you really loved me (independent clause).

SERIAL COMMAS (See commas.)

SHALL, WILL

I shall scream, Mr. Bumble, I shall scream.

—Widow Corney, Oliver

“Shall” and “will” are helping verbs. There used to be a distinction between “shall” and “will”: “I” or “we” was followed by “shall.”

We shall let you know when your Tiffany jewels arrive.

Today, this rule is relaxing. In place of the sentences above, it’s fine to say “will” with “I” or “we.”

We will let you know when your Tiffany jewels arrive.

Fleeting fads affect fashion. (Not, effect—see here.)

“Shall” is still used if you are offering or inviting, or if you’re indicating something that must be done.

Shall we dance?

We shall look forward to seeing you at our Masquerade Ball.

Bylaws: The books shall be audited each December.

SIMILES

To remember what a simile is, think of the word “similar,” meaning “alike.” Similes are figures of speech that compare one thing to another, using the prepositions “like” and “as.” (See also as, like; figures of speech; and prepositions.)

run like a cheetah

a mind like a computer

smelly as old socks

cantankerous as a bull

SLASHES

The slash ( / ) has many aliases, including “virgule,” “solidus,” and “diagonal.” A slash stands for “or,” while a hyphen stands for “and.” For example, “every city/state” is not the same as “every city-state.” The former gives a choice (“every city or state”), the latter a combination (“city-state” meaning a “sovereign state”). So “2005/06” does not mean two successive years. It means either “2005 or 2006.”

Use a slash:

To show the end of a line of poetry when written in narrative, not in stanzas (poetry form).

“Curtains forcing their will / against the wind / children sleep / exchanging dreams with / seraphim.… ” (“Awaking in New York,” Maya Angelou)

A space is added before and after the slash when showing line breaks in poetry. (Some usage guides prefer a space only after the slash.)

With fractions.

1/3

3/8

15/16

Here’s a catalog for serious cooks. (Not, cooks’—see here.)

For dates, informally.

6/1/05

8/13/73

4/30/67

DID YOU KNOW? A slash is also used in the dating of years in Greek antiquity. You would write “455/456 B.C.,” because the Greek new year began in mid-year, not January.

To show two options.

Don’t put a space before or after the slash.

pass/fail seminar

win/win situation

credit/noncredit course

thumbs up/thumbs down

In Web site addresses.

http://www.grammarpatrol.com/

TIP: Do not substitute a slash for a dash. (See dashes.)

SMART QUOTES (See quotation marks.)

SOME DAY, SOMEDAY

“Some day” (two words) means “a specific, but unnamed day.” “Someday” (one word) means “at some time in the future.”

I’ll clean out my closet some day soon.

Someday, Sheila plans to parachute from a plane.

SOME TIME, SOMETIME, SOMETIMES

“Some time,” “sometime,” and “sometimes” are adverbs: They answer the question “when?” “Some time” means “an indefinite period.” “Sometime” means “an unspecified point in time.” “Sometimes” means “now and then.”

That fuzz-covered broccoli died some time ago.

Tami hopes to visit California sometime.

Sometimes I eat pizza for breakfast.

Kitty sneaked down for a midnight snack. (Not, snuck—see here.)

SPELLING (See homonyms; plurals; and possessives.)

Quick Spelling Quiz

maladjusted or

malajusted?

temperment or

temperament?

acommodate or

accommodate?

committee or

commitee?

debatable or

debateable?

yeild or

yield?

hurtful or

hurtfull?

reluctent or

reluctant?

irrisistable or

irresistible?

precede or

preceed?

arrangement or

arrangment?

ocassion or

occasion?

cantaloupe or

canteloupe?

occurance or

occurrence?

(See here for answers.)

Some people are born good spellers. Others struggle with it. The good news is that spelling is not related to intelligence.

A Classics professor notes that back in the mid-20th century, when many more students took Latin, they grew familiar with the Latin roots that appear in about two-thirds of English. This made students more adept at spelling. (See prefixes, roots, suffixes.)

Spell Checkers and Misspeller’s Dictionaries

“Look it up,” you’re told. But how can you look it up if you don’t know the spelling? Dictionaries such as Webster’s New World Pocket Misspeller’s Dictionary are written especially for anyone who’s spelling impaired. You look up the word the way you think it might be spelled. Bingo! Often, you not only find the word spelled your way, but you’ll find the correct spelling, too. On the Internet, use dictionary sites, such as www.m-w.com or others. If the word you enter is spelled wrong, you’ll be given several close hits. You can also use wild cards: “cant*l*pe” finds “cantaloupe.”

The elephant waved its trunk. (Not, it’s—see here.)

Like it or not, your spelling affects your image. If spelling is your weakness, ask a friend or colleague to proof your work and use your spell checker faithfully—it’s a great tool. Spell-check every document you write on the computer, and every letter and email you send, to avoid errors such as writing “neccesary” for “necessary,” “committment” for “commitment,” “embarass” for “embarrass,” or “mispell” for “misspell.”

But that same trusty spell checker can’t tell “grin and bear it” from “grin and bare it.” It can’t know that you meant “kangaroos” where you wrote “kangaroo.”

DID YOU KNOW? Popular groups, companies, and sports teams often tweak spelling and punctuation rules to create unusual names.

Boyz II Men

OutKast

Led Zeppelin

Rice Krispies

White Sox

Operalia 2000

Power Up Your Spelling Skills

Here are a few things you can do to improve your spelling:

Pronounce words carefully. (See pronunciation.)

Don’t add or subtract syllables when you say a word.

“Athlete” doesn’t have an extra syllable. Say, “ath´ lete,” not “ath´ uh lete.” “Mathematics” does have an e in the middle. Say, “math eh ma´ tics,” not “math ma´ tics.”

Jack and Jill go up the hill. (Not, goes—see here.)

Know basic spelling rules.

Here’s a sampling:

A silent e at the end of a word makes the vowel before it long. (“Hat” becomes “hate”; “sit” becomes “site”; “sham” becomes “shame.”)

To pluralize words ending in y with a consonant before it, change the y to i and add es: party, parties.

Use i before e except after c unless sounding like a ¯ as in “neighbor” or “weigh.”

i before e: field, yield, sieve

e follows c: ceiling, receive, deceit

sounds like a: rein, weight, sleigh

TIP: “When two vowels go walking, the first one does the talking.” Remember this ditty from grade school? It almost always works. When vowels are paired, say the name of the first vowel. The second vowel is silent:

gait (say the long a sound) dream (say the long e sound)

skies (say the long i sound)

float (say the long o sound)

To change most words ending in e to adjectives, cross off the e and add a y:

smoke/smoky

stone/stony

spice/spicy

sponge/spongy

THE BIG E: A few words don’t follow this rule: “Dice” becomes “dicey,” for instance. And, of all things, Smokey the Bear has an e.

Senator Mudd used bribery to alter votes. (Not, altar—see here.)

Use mnemonics (nee mon´ iks), or memory aids.

Here are two good ones:

Think “four” (4) with fourth, the number after “third.” You won’t confuse it with “forth,” as in “go forth. ” (Note that you capitalize “fourth” in “Fourth of July” and that the number “forty” has no u.)

“Weird” is weird! With this “i before e” rule-breaker, the e comes before the i. Think, “We are weird,” and you’ll remember that “weird” starts with “we.”

Know the difference between nouns (cloth, clothes; breath) and verbs (clothe; breathe).

Focus on your own spelling demons! Write down the words you often spell incorrectly; refer to them often. For example, maybe you’ll note that “advertise,” “exercise,” and “surprise” end in se, while “prize” ends in ze.

PS How did you do on the Quick Spelling Quiz? The answers: maladjusted, temperament, accommodate, committee, debatable, yield, hurtful, reluctant, irresistible, precede, arrangement, occasion, cantaloupe, occurrence.

SPLIT INFINITIVES (See verbs.)

SPOKEN ERRORS (See fillers, and pronunciation.)

The way you speak is a reflection of you. If a lawyer says, “Between you and I” or “Me and you know better” in a closing argument in a courtroom, listeners may focus more on the incorrect grammar than on the ideas behind the words. In casual speech, you or your colleagues can get away with bloopers. In formal writing and speech—school, business, or public speaking—such errors detract from your professional image.

An antidote for snake bites is antivenin. (Not, anecdote—see here.)

Follow these rules to avoid mistakes heard frequently in speech:

Don’t say, “alls” for “all,” “get ahold of” for “get,” or “looking to” for “planning to” or “hoping for.”

“All I have to do is feed the iguana.” (Not, “Alls I gotta do …”)

“I can’t get (or find) the red paint.” (Not, “I can’t get ahold of” or “I can’t get aholt of …”)

“I’m hoping for a promotion.” (Not, “I’m looking to be promoted.”)

Don’t use “go” when you mean “say”:

“So then, he says, ‘Take it or leave it.’ ” (Not, “So then, he goes …”)

Likewise, please, please, don’t use “went” for “said.”

“So then I said, ‘Evander Holyfield’s better than Lennox Lewis!’ ” (Not, “So then I went …”)

Don’t add extra words.

“That’s too long a skit.” (Not, “That’s too long of a skit.”)

“That’s too wide an SUV.” (Not, “That’s too wide of an SUV.”)

Don’t leave out a word.

“I have a couple of ideas.” (Not, “I have a couple ideas.”)

Don’t use “there’s” (meaning “there is”) with plurals. (See subject-verb agreement.)

“There are lots of quacks.” (Not, “There’s lots of quacks.”)

Don’t let verbs and subjects disagree in number.

“Elvis suspenders are crucial to my outfit.” (Not, “Elvis suspenders is crucial …”)

Don’t say, “Where ya at?” Say, “Where are you?” instead.

Don’t leave a phrase unfinished.

“As far as slippers are concerned (or go), I prefer piggies to moose.” (Not, “As far as slippers …”)

The Simmonses love Maui anyway. (Not, anyways—see here.)

TIP: The phrase “as for” doesn’t need more words to be complete: “As for slippers, I prefer piggies to moose.”

Don’t use “like” when you mean “as.” (See as, like.)

“As I said, Red’s about as graceful as a barge.” (Not, “Like I said …”)

Don’t forget the subjunctive. (See subjunctive mood.)

“If I were you, I’d bunt.” (Not, “If I was you …”)

Don’t double your negatives. (See double negatives.)

“I can hardly wait.” (Not, “I can’t hardly wait.)

Don’t forget “from” with “graduate” if an object follows.

Lena graduated from Yale. (Not, graduated Yale.)

TIP: You can use “graduate” if no object follows: Lena graduated in May.

SUBJECT (See predicate, and sentences.)

A subject tells who or what a sentence or clause is about.

Simple Subject

The toilet (subject) overflowed.

Complete Subject

A complete subject includes the subject and all the words that describe it.

The nervous, would-be dancer (complete subject) did a pirouette during his audition.

Compound Subject

There was a time when a fool and his money were soon parted, but now it happens to everybody.

—Adlai Stevenson

Like “a fool and his money,” a compound subject has two or more words or phrases joined by the conjunction “and.” Use a plural verb with a compound subject.

Daffy, Mickey, and Minnie ride the Matterhorn after hours. (They ride.)

Sign: Game tickets sold here (Not, ticket’s—see here.)

SUBJECT COMPLEMENTS (See linking verbs; predicate adjectives; and predicate nouns.)

Subject complements are nouns, adjectives, or pronouns that follow linking verbs.

Nouns as Subject Complements

Marie Curie became (linking verb) a scientist (subject complement—noun).

Adjectives as Subject Complements

Restaurateur Nobuyuki Matsuhisa is versatile (linking verb)(subject complement—adjective).

Pronouns as Subject Complements

When pronouns follow forms of the linking verbs “to be,” use the subjective form of a pronoun. (In Grammarspeak, “to be” verbs are called “verbs of being”: am, is, are, was, were.)

Here’s a review of subjective pronouns.

Subjective Pronouns

Person

Singular

Plural

First

I

we

Second

you

you

Third

he, she, it

they

It is they (linking verb) (subject complement—subjective pronoun) who snarfed down all the cashews.

The belle of the Snowflake Ball was she (linking verb)(subject complement—subjective pronoun).

“It is I” or “It is me”?

Informally, especially in spoken language, saying “It is me” or “It’s me” has become acceptable, even though “It is I” is more correct. The Grammar Patrol sticks with the latter.

Bertha lets Alden win at chess. (Not, let’s—see here.)

MNEMONIC (MEMORY AID): To remember the meaning of “complement,” think of the word “complete.” The words in a subject complement complete the subject of the sentence.

SUBJUNCTIVE (See verbs.)

SUBSTANDARD WORDS

Some words seem like real words, but aren’t. They’ve been created by stretching, mispronouncing, or changing a real word. Avoid using substandard words.

Standard Words

Substandard Words

all right

alright

analysis

analyzation

anyway

anyways

consternation

connerstation

integral

intregal

oriented

orientated

regardless

irregardless

relevant, relevance

revelant, revelance

remuneration

renumeration

supposedly

supposably

unequivocally

unequivocably

SUCH AS (See like, such as.)

SUFFIXES (See prefixes, roots, and suffixes.)

SYNTAX (See diagramming sentences.)

The expert appraised the wax doll. (Not, apprised—see here.)

Syntax is the structure of language: the way words fit together to create meaning. Errors in syntax result in confusing sentences.

Incorrect Syntax:

Chocolate and other sweets break out my face. (The sweets don’t break out; your face does. Two key words—“make my”—are missing.)

The Fix:

Chocolate and other sweets make my face break out.

Incorrect Syntax:

Have a good trip wherever your final destination may take you. (A destination can’t take you anywhere.)

The Fix:

Have a good trip wherever you may travel from here.

Incorrect Syntax:

I hate when that happens. (The pronoun “it” is missing.)

The Fix:

I hate it when that happens.”

Tangled syntax makes readers or listeners work harder. When you know the job each word does in a sentence, you have an intuitive sense of how words fit together. The more you read and play with words, the easier language becomes.

Here are some syntax basics:

Every complete sentence has a subject and a predicate. (See predicate; sentences; and subject.)

The storm raged (subject) (predicate).

Words need to be combined in logical ways.

“Raged storm the” uses the same three words as above, but the mixed-up syntax destroys the meaning.

When the syntax and or punctuation changes, the meaning changes.

The same words in different order can mean completely different things.

“Do I love you?” (Doubt is creeping in.)

“I do love you!” (There’s no doubt about it.)

I knew you’d paint your room purple. (Not, knowed—see here.)

People learning English may have trouble with English syntax, especially if the structure is not the same as it is in their native languages.

English language learners might say, “I’m glad with my game,” when they mean, “I’m happy with my game,” or “I’m glad I played well.” Word order may differ, too.

In Spanish: Te amo. (Word-for-word translation: “You I love.”)

In French: Je t’aime. (Word-for-word translation: “I you love.”)

In English: I love you.

T

TENANT, TENET

A “tenant” is “a renter or occupant.” A “tenet” is “an opinion or principle.”

My tenant cooks with too much garlic.

“Eat dessert first” is one of Wendy’s lifelong tenets.

TENSE (See verbs.)

THEIR, THERE, THEY’RE

“Their” is a possessive pronoun.

Their snail crossed the finish line first.

“There” shows place; you can also use “there” to start a sentence.

On your coin map, the Peach Tree State quarter goes there.

There are two people in that giraffe costume.

“They’re” is the contraction of “they are.”

They’re going to Las Vegas to be married. (They are going.)

I couldn’t care less about T-Ball. (Not, could—see here.)

TIP: Don’t confuse “theirs” and “there’s,” either.

The choice between pork bellies and futures is theirs. (possessive)

There’s plenty of pecan pie left. (There is plenty.)

TIME AND MONEY

Leave out the minutes when writing about the time on the hour (i.e., when the minute hand points at twelve or the digital clock’s minute display reads “00”).

3 A.M. (not 3:00 A.M.)

Use the possessive with time and money words. (See possessives.)

an hour’s delay = a delay of an hour (singular possessive)

a few days’ quiet = a quiet of a few days (plural possessive)

six months’ probation = a probation of six months (plural posessive)

a penny’s worth = a worth of a penny (singular possessive)

fifty dollars’ worth = a worth of fifty dollars (plural possessive)

THE BIG E: Some time phrases don’t show possession—no apostrophe needed.

three weeks later

six months earlier

TIP: Use words, not numerals, with the word “o’clock”: six o’clock, not 6 o’clock.

TO, TOO, TWO

“To” helps form the infinitive of a verb: Jeremy hoped to dazzle Sara with his tap dancing.

“Too” means “also”: Marge loves leftovers, too.

“Two” refers to the number 2: I have two precious parakeets.

TOWARD, TOWARDS

While “towards” is still acceptable, it’s more British. We prefer “toward.”

The Déja Vu team won last fall. (Not, Fall—see here.)

U

UNIQUE (See adjectives.)

V

VAIN, VANE, VEIN

The adjective “vain” means “fruitless or hollow” (a vain endeavor) or “conceited” (a vain person). For “vane,” think “weather vane.” It indicates wind direction. The noun “vein” is a blood vessel carrying blood back to the heart.

“You’re so vain,” sang Carly Simon. “You probably think this song is about you.”

The nurse searched for Dracula’s vein to draw blood.

VERBALS (See verbs.)

VERBS (This hefty verb section is organized alphabetically, by topic.)

Verbs show action (“skitter,” “chop,” “zoom,” “flip”) or a state of being (the verb “to be”: am, is, are, was, were).

Verbs power sentences. Choose active, specific verbs to make your writing strong: “scramble,” “strum,” “ski.”

The form and spelling of a verb depend on its tense, person, number, mood, and voice.

Tense: past, present, future (and other more complex tenses)

Person: first, second, or third

Number: singular or plural

Mood: indicative, imperative, or subjunctive

Voice: active or passive

The week passed fast. (Not, past—see here.)

Active Voice and Passive Voice (See voice, active and passive.)

Auxiliary Verbs (See helping verbs.)

“Being” Verbs (See verbs of being.)

Contractions (See also apostrophes, and double negatives.)

Contractions are shortcuts—two words “pulled together” or contracted into one—used in speech, dialogue, and informal writing. One of the combined words is a verb, and an apostrophe holds the place of omitted letter(s).

does not = doesn’t

you will = you’ll

she is = she’s

it is = it’s

had not = hadn’t

who is = who’s

I’ve = I have

we will = we’ll

will not = won’t

Some contractions have different meanings, depending on the words around them. “What’s” can mean “what is.” Add a participle and “what’s” means “what has.”

What’s (What is) the origin of black holes in the universe?

What’s (What has) Slippery Jim done now?

Contraction or Possessive Pronoun?

Don’t confuse contractions with possessive pronouns. Contractions have apostrophes. Possessive pronouns don’t!

Contractions are Shortcuts

(Uses an apostrophe)

Possessives Show Ownership

(No apostrophe)

It’s = It is or it has

“It’s another win for the team!”

Its

The Grissini Grill plugs its cioppino.

You’re = You are

You’re (you are) my only uncle.

Your

I love your Tag watch.

They’re = They are

They’re (they are) swing dancers.

Their

Their TV broke, thank goodness.

“Cuddles, lie down!” (Not, lay—see here.)

Be on the alert for accidental mix-ups like these:

“Your now entering Harmony.” (Should be “You’re”: You are.)

Call Bugbusters. Their available 24/7. (Should be “They’re”: They are.)

Motherhood has it’s privileges. (Should be “its” privileges: for ownership.)

Noun-Verb Contractions

Informally, a noun or pronoun can be part of a contraction.

Mike’s taking Connor for a bike ride. (Mike is taking Connor for a bike ride.)

She’s a great trapeze artist. (She is a great trapeze artist.)

Contraction Quicksand (See got, have.)

When chatting with friends, you might say, “We should’ve (should have) bet on the Knicks.” This spoken contraction often leads to writing and saying “should of,” “could of,” or “would of.” Avoid this incorrect combination in speech and writing. (Don’t use “should’ve,” “would’ve,” and “could’ve” unless you’re writing dialogue.)

Gerund (See phrases; possessive pronouns and gerunds; and verbals.)

When an ing form of a verb has the job of a noun, it’s called a gerund.

Sierra, a novice skier, focused on snowplowing.

Helping Verbs

Helping verbs (in Grammarspeak, “auxiliary verbs”) work together with other verbs. They include forms of “be,” “have,” “can,” and “will”: am, is, are, was, were, be, been, has, have, had, can, could, will, would, shall, should, may, might, must, and ought.

I am exhausted (helping verb) (verb) from my week in Bimini.

“I must have slept (helping verb) (verb),” decided Rip Van Winkle.

We will watch (helping verb) (verb) Cokie Roberts’s interview tonight.

Ike’s flip-flops complement his beach attire. (Not, compliment—see here.)

Infinitives (See verbals.)

An infinitive is the “to” form of a verb: “to bellow,” “to dig,” “to skid.” (It’s called an infinitive because it is “not limited” to person or number: It’s “infinite.” You don’t say, “we to bellow.”)

Infinitives can act as subjects, objects, or complements (modifiers).

To Rollerblade is my life. (The infinitive acts as the subject of the sentence.

The Dixie Chicks were the group to see. (The infinitive modifies the noun “group.”)

To Split or Not to Split

The old rule about never splitting infinitives—putting other words between the “to” and the base form—no longer holds. This rule originally stemmed from Latin grammar. Latin infinitives are one word (amare is “to love”), so they cannot be split. In English, to occasionally split (like that!) an infinitive is okay. If you can write the sentence differently, do so. Otherwise, leave the split, as in this famous Star Trek line: “To boldly go where no one has gone before.”

DID YOU KNOW? With infinitive phrases, avoid substituting “and” for “to.” Say “Call to schedule a termite inspection,” not “Call and schedule a termite inspection.”

Intransitive and Transitive Verbs

Verbs are either intransitive or transitive.

Intransitive verbs do not take a direct object.

The crowd rose.

The verb “rose” is intransitive. You can’t say, “The crowd rose itself” or “The crowd rose excitement.” The verb “rose” takes no object.

Intransitive verbs can be followed by adverbs that tell how, when, why, or to what extent.

appears slowly

belong completely

looked wistfully

The change in Conan’s attitude was negligible. (Not, negligent—see here.)

MNEMONIC (MEMORY AID): For “transitive,” think of the word “transit.” It means “to go across.” A transitive verb’s activity “crosses over” to an object. “In” means “not,” so “intransitive” means “does not cross over.” Intransitives do not take an object.

Transitive verbs take a direct object.

Kobe Bryant scored a three-pointer.

The verb “scored” is transitive. The direct object, “three-pointer,” receives the action of the verb “scored.” Kobe scored what? A three-pointer.

DID YOU KNOW? When looking up verbs in the dictionary, you may come across the abbreviations vt. and vi. The abbreviation “vi.” indicates “intransitive verb” and the abbreviation “vt.” indicates “transitive verb.”

Dictionary entry: “skid, vt.”

Dictionary entry: “appear, vi.”

Easily Confused Pairs

Three easily confused pairs of intransitive and transitive verbs are “lie” and “lay, “ “rise” and “raise,” and “sit” and “set.”

lie (no object)

lay your sunglasses here (object)

rise (no object)

raise the roof (object)

sit (no object)

set my hair (object)

Country music is different from opera. (Not, different than—see here.)

Lay, Lie

Present Tense

Present Participle

Past Tense (no helping verb)

Past Participle (needs a helping verb)

lie (to recline, be situated—takes no object)

lying

lay

lain

lay (to put down, place, arrange some-thing—takes an object)

laying

laid

laid

Say, “Lie down, Bruno,” not “Lay down, Bruno.” (Dogs have a sixth sense about good grammar.)

People often confuse “lie” and “lay.” Check out these examples:

Lie

Present

He lies (not lays) on the couch.

He is lying (not is laying) on the couch.

Past

He lay (not laid) down yesterday.

He had lain (not had laid) down yesterday.

Future

She will lie (not will lay) on the beach.

She will be lying (not will be laying) on the beach.

(The verb “lie” also means to tell a falsehood; as a noun, it means “a fib.”)

TIP: Seams lie flat, not lay flat. (No object follows “lie.”)

Lay

Present

Lay (not lie) your CDs on the table, James.

James is laying (not is lying) the CDs on the table.

Past

James laid (not lay) the CDs on the table yesterday.

James had laid (not had lain) the CDs on the table yesterday.

Future

They will lay (not will lie) the tile floor soon.

They will have laid (not will have lain) the tile floor soon.

TIP: Substitute the word “place” for “lay.” If “place” works, it’s correct. Otherwise, use “lie.”

The cheese had fermented to green fuzz. (Not, fomented—see here.)

Raise, Rise

Present Tense

Present Participle

Past Tense (no helping verb)

Past Participle (needs a helping verb)

rise (to get up—takes no object)

rising

rose

risen

raise (to move higher—takes an object)

raising

raised

raised

The sun is rising. (no object)

Artie raised his pirate flag on a broomstick pole. (object)

TIP: Dough rises, not raises. (No object follows “rises.”)

Sit, Set

Present Tense

Present Participle

Past Tense (no helping verb)

Past Participle (needs a helping verb)

sit (to be seated—takes no object)

sitting

sat

sat

set (to put down, place, arrange—takes an object)

setting

set

set

“Sit here, Uncle Jethro.” (no object)

“Don’t set your dentures on the back step, Uncle Jethro.” (object)

THE BIG E: “Set” has many meanings. It can also mean “to harden” (concrete sets) and “drop below the horizon” (the sun sets).

Irregular Verbs (See verb forms, regular and irregular.)

The new drug homed in on leukemia. (Not, honed—see here.)

Linking Verbs (See predicate adjectives, and subject complements.)

Linking verbs include “to be” verbs, verbs of the senses, and some other verbs.

“To be” linking verbs include am, is, are, was, and were.

Bitsy was (subject) (linking verb) a cantankerous sow (predicate noun).

It is I (subject)(linking verb)(pronoun).

Verbs of the senses—look, feel, sound, taste, and smell—are linking verbs.

Words that follow verbs of the senses also complete the meaning of the subject.

Sight: That sushi looks fabulous. (fabulous sushi)

Touch: A facial scrub feels scratchy. (scratchy scrub)

Hearing: That electric guitar sounds off-key. (off-key guitar)

Taste: Your hot fudge sundaes taste divine. (divine sundae)

Smell: The cabin smelled stuffy. (stuffy cabin)

Other verbs, such as become, seem, appear, believe, grow, remain, and prove are also linking verbs.

Nelson Mandela (subject) became (linking verb) South Africa’s hero (predicate noun).

The jazz trio (subject)(linking verb)(predicate adjective) proved popular at Nico’s party.

Mood

What kind of a mood is your verb in? No, this doesn’t mean grumpy, romantic, or down in the dumps. Verbs have three moods: indicative, imperative, and subjunctive. You can tell a verb’s mood by its form.

The indicative mood is used for facts. If your verb tells a fact or asks something factual, it’s in the indicative mood. The imperative mood (from the Latin for “command”) is used for commands. If a verb sounds downright bossy, it’s in the imperative mood. The subjunctive mood is used for nonfacts. If a verb expresses a wish or something nonfactual or contrary to fact, it’s in the subjunctive mood.

Did Joe marinate this beef in motor oil? (Not, marinade—see here.)

Indicative Mood (Declarative or Interrogative)

In the indicative mood, verbs either make statements (they declare or tell) or ask questions (they interrogate or ask).

Declarative sentences give a fact or opinion.

Toto will carry Dorothy’s slippers.

Interrogative sentences ask questions.

Do you like green eggs and ham?

Did Jack meet Jill tumbling down the hill?

Note the format of the interrogatives: The verbs “like” and “meet” both have a helper, “do” and “did,” that appears before the subject. Be on the lookout for an asking adverb, another clue to the interrogative mood: who, when, where, how, who, and why.

Who was that masked man?

Imperative Mood

In the imperative mood, verbs give orders or make requests.

Hold fast to dreams …

—Langston Hughes, “Dreams”

The subject for these imperative mood verbs is often implied. An imperative sentence can be just one word long. Such one-word sentences may end with exclamation points.

[You] Run!

[You] Be careful.

[You] Leave, Roger!

[You] Unplug the sink!

Subjunctive Mood

In the subjunctive mood, verbs express a wish, request, recommendation, or something contrary to fact.

You’ll remember the subjunctive mood if you think of Tevye in the musical Fiddler on the Roof singing, “If I were a rich man …” Tevye is not rich: The sentence is contrary to fact, so it calls for the subjunctive “were.” (Not, “If I was.”)

Substituting “were” for “was” in “if” clauses is the most common use of the subjunctive.

Lord Cuspid is homelier than a possum. (Not, then—see here.)

Right

If I were you, I’d give up day trading.

Wrong

If I was you, I’d give up day trading.

? Why?

The person speaking (“I”) is not the day trader. The statement is contrary to fact. Use the subjunctive “were.”

TIP: Not all “if” clauses take the subjunctive. You can use “was” with “if” to show the past tense.

If George Clooney was in that limo, I didn’t see him.

Also use the subjunctive:

With verbs followed by “that,” such as demand, insist, recommend, request, suggest, and urge. (Use “be,” plus a participle.)

We recommend that more fog be used in Scene II.

With a “to be” verb in the present tense.

If using a subjunctive “to be” verb in the present tense, the form is “be.” To form a present tense “to be” subjunctive, use the word “be” plus a past participle.

Alas, it is necessary that our Siberian cruise be postponed.

With other verbs in the present tense.

With other verbs, present or past, use the present form of the subjunctive: It has no s, even in the third person singular.

Our dress code requires (present) that every employee wear (not wears (present subjunctive)) a suit.

Santa suggested (past) that Techno-Elf create (present subjunctive) (not creates) a new jet ski.

With wishes.

In the subjunctive mood, use the past tense to express a wish.

The Baldwins wish (present) they had memorized (past subjunctive) their scripts.

Tim wished (past) he were (past subjunctive) old enough to drive a hook and ladder.

You don’t need to buy anything! (Not, nothing—see here.)

With “had” or “would have” in “if” clauses about imagined conditions.

Right

If Marcy had persisted, she would have ridden the surfboard.

or

Had Marcy persisted, she would have ridden the surfboard.

Wrong

If Marcy would have persisted, she would have ridden the surfboard.

? Why?

Don’t double up on the form “would have” for the subjunctive. Instead, use the form “had” plus “would have” in “if” clauses about things that could have happened, but didn’t. Marcy had given up on surfing, so the statement is imagined.

Number and Person

Verbs have number (one or more than one) and person (first, second, or third). The present tense chart below shows how this works.

Number

Person

Singular (One)

Plural (More than one)

First

I see

we see

Second

you see

you see

Third

he sees, she sees, it sees

they see

TIP: In the present tense, third person singular verbs end in s or es.

He passes!

She shoots!

She scores!

Third Person Singular (He, She, It)

Right

Wrong

He runs fast.

He run fast.

She runs fast.

She run fast.

It runs fast.

It run fast.

DID YOU KNOW? The demonstrative pronouns “this” and “that” are singular; “these” and “those” are plural.

This wrinkles easily. (Use a third person singular verb form.)

These wrinkle easily. (Use a third person plural verb form.)

Here are Bridget and I at the Blarney Stone. (Not, me—see here.)

Participles (See dangling participial phrases; verb forms, regular and irregular; and verbals.)

All verbs have a participial form. Participles can be part of a verb (is tripping, had tripped) or act as modifiers (dripping faucet, canoeing skills).

Present Participles

To form the present participle, add ing to a present tense verb. Presto! A present participle.

punting

walking

thinking

If the verb has a consonant-plus-e ending, drop the e and add ing.

hope, hoping

spike, spiking

believe, believing

If a verb has a vowel-consonant ending, double the last letter, then add ing.

spin, spinning

run, running

flap, flapping

THE BIG E: This rule isn’t 100 percent foolproof. With “show,” for instance, just add ing: “showing.”

Past Participles

To form the past participle with regular verbs, add d or ed to the verb form: skated, crooned, plastered. Irregular verbs don’t follow that rule. (See the list of irregular verbs.)

Perfect Participles

To form the perfect participle, connect a participle with “having” or “having been.” Perfect participles signal that something happened before the action of the main verb.

Having played doubles at the Olympics, Venus and Serena Williams continued their separate tennis careers. (“Having” makes this the active voice.)

Having been thrown out of the restaurant, Tony settled for Spaghettios. (“Having been” makes this the passive voice.)

Chase and Connor play in the sandbox. (Not, plays—see here.)

Participial Phrases as Modifiers (See dangling participial phrases.)

Add other words to a participle to create a participial phrase.

Running the red light, → the car was caught on a minicam. (Present participial phrase acting as an adjective, modifying “car.”)

Lighted only by the moon →, the path was treacherous. (Past participial phrase acting as an adjective, modifying “path.”)

Passive Voice (See voice, active and passive.)

Past Participles (See participles.)

Person (See number and person.)

Phrasal Verbs (See phrasals.)

Regular Verbs (See verb forms, regular and irregular.)

Split Infinitives (See infinitives.)

Subject-Verb Agreement (See subject-verb agreement.)

Subjunctive (See mood.)

Substandard Verb Forms (See verb forms, regular and irregular.)

Tense

Verbs are versatile. They change forms to indicate when something happens.

Present Tense

Past Tense

Future Tense

Dogs bark.

Dogs barked.

Dogs will bark.

Julie’s snapdragons grew tall. (Not, growed—see here.)

Add a helping verb to create a verb that shows something that happens before or after another event:

Present Perfect Tense

Past Perfect Tense

Future Perfect Tense

Dogs have barked.

Dogs had barked.

Dogs will have barked.

Verb Forms, Regular and Irregular

Every verb has a form for the present tense, present participle, past tense, and past participle. It’s important to know whether a verb is regular (they’re the easy ones!) or irregular.

Regular verbs

Regular verbs follow a pattern. Add d or ed to the present tense of a verb to form the past tense and the past participle. The past participle takes a helping verb.

Present Tense

Past Tense

Past Perfect Tense

paint

painted

had painted

snap

snapped

had snapped

speculate

speculated

had speculated

Irregular verbs

But some verbs don’t follow the regular pattern above. They are irregular. (See the list of irregular verbs.)

Substandard Verb Forms

You would think that if one irregular verb says “drink, drank, drunk,” you could also say, “think, thank, thunk.” But English is far too slippery for that. It’s “think, thought, thought.”

You can’t invent a past participle, either. “Brang,” “broughten,” “brung,” “drug,” “slidden,” “slunken,” “swang,” or “wroten” aren’t acceptable in standard English, although they may be heard in some regional speech.

Young children or people learning English often simply add d or ed to any present verb to form the past tense. They have figured out that English has patterns; they just don’t know the exceptions yet. Don’t use “comed” (“came”), “knowed” (“knew”), “runned” (“ran”), “seed” (“saw”), or “sweeped” (“swept”).

How far did the Herdegens fly? (Not, fly?. —see here.)

If you’re unsure about a verb form, check a dictionary. Some examples:

Look up “burst” and you’ll see “burst/burst/burst,” so you know you can’t say, “The sumo wrestler bursted into tears.” Make it “burst.”

Don’t say “I drug my desk across the room.” (“Drag” is a regular verb: drag, dragging, dragged, dragged.) Make it “dragged.”

Use “learned,” not “learnt.”

Here’s a sampling of the more than two hundred irregular verbs:

Present Tense

Present Participle

Past Tense (no helping verb)

Past Participle (needs a helping verbhas, have, had)

am, is, are (to be)

being

was, were

been

arise

arising

arose

arisen

beat

beating

beat

beaten

become

becoming

became

become

bite

biting

bit

bitten, bit

blow

blowing

blew

blown

break

breaking

broke

broken

bring

bringing

brought (never “brang” or “brung”)

brought (never “brang” or “brung”)

burn

burning

burned*

burned*

cast

casting

cast (never “casted”; but “broadcast” or “broadcasted”)

cast (never “casted”; but “broadcast” or “broadcasted”)

choose

choosing

chose

chosen

cling

clinging

clung

clung

*You may see “burnt” as an adjective: burnt syrup.

Rusty brought a bag of mail. (Not, brang—see above.)

come

coming

came

come

cost

costing

cost

cost

do

doing

did

done

dream

dreaming

dreamed, dreamt

dreamed, dreamt

drive

driving

drove

driven

eat

eating

ate

eaten

feed

feeding

fed

fed

fight

fighting

fought

fought

find

finding

found

found

flee

fleeing

fled

fled

forgive

forgiving

forgave

forgiven

freeze

freezing

froze

frozen

give

giving

gave

given

go

going

went

gone

grow

growing

grew

grown

hang (execute)

hanging

hanged

hanged

hang (suspend)

hanging

hung

hung

hide

hiding

hid

hidden

hold

holding

held

held

kneel

kneeling

knelt

knelt

know

knowing

knew

known

leave

leaving

left

left

lose

losing

lost

lost

made

making

made

made

meet

meeting

met

met

plead

pleading

pleaded, pled

pleaded, pled

prove

proving

proved

proved, proven

put

putting

put

put

run

running

ran

run

say

saying

said

said

see

seeing

saw (never “seen”)

seen

set

setting

set

set

sew

sewing

sewed

sewn, sewed

shake

shaking

shook

shaken

shine

shining

shone (the sun shone) shined (he shined shoes)

shone (the sun has shone) shined (he has shined shoes)

show

showing

showed

shown

A pair of vultures swoops in! (Not, swoop—see here.)

sing

singing

sang

sung

sink

sinking

sank

sunk

slide

sliding

slid

slid

sneak

sneaking

sneaked (never “snuck”)

sneaked (never “snuck”)

speak

speaking

spoke

spoken

spring

springing

sprang

sprung

sting

stinging

stung (never “stang”)

stung (never “stang”)

swear

swearing

swore

sworn

swim

swimming

swam

swum

swing

swinging

swung

swung

tear (rhymes with “air”)

tearing

tore

torn

think

thinking

thought

thought

throw

throwing

threw

thrown

wake

waking

woke, waked

waked, woken

wring

wringing

wrung

wrung

write

writing

wrote

written

Quick Verb Review

Remember—past-tense verbs (third column) stand alone: They don’t have helping verbs. Past participles of verbs (fourth column) must have a helping verb.

Say, “came” or “had come”; “saw” or “had seen”; “sank” or “have sunk”; “ate” or “have eaten”. Don’t say, “had came,” “had saw,” “have sank,” or “have ate.”

We saw the Lipizzaner horse show at the fair. (Not, We seen.)

They had gone to see Pearl Harbor.(Not, had went.)

“To Be” Verbs (See verbs of being.)

Verb Mood (See mood.)

Verbals (See gerund; infinitives; and participles.)

Besides having forms that show tense, mood, person, voice, and number, verbs can take three forms: gerunds, infinitives, and participles. These “verbals” don’t act as the main verb of a sentence. Instead, they take on new roles as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. Verbals can take direct and indirect objects.

Great Aunt Izzy’s doing well. (Not, good—see here.)

Verbing

“Verbing” means turning other parts of speech into verbs. The word “verbing” itself is an example of this, and a term we use here with tongue fully in cheek.

Hurricane Opal will landfall by daybreak.

Hermione googled Ron on the Internet.

Sometimes “verbed” words work their way into speech, writing, and, eventually, dictionaries. Others don’t.

Many words that began life as nouns are now commonly accepted as verbs: to jackhammer, to water ski, to premiere, to mainstream, to diagnose (from diagnosis), to author, and to host.

Some dictionaries even recognize “to calendar,” but the Grammar Patrol loathes this one! And “to calendarize” is even more odious!

The “verbing” of words such as “access” and “impact” bothers many people. Other words, like “overnight” and “jury,” seem on their way to becoming verbs.

Access

“Access,” although now listed as a verb in dictionaries, remains controversial. Hearing “access” used as a verb is still hard for many people to take!

He’ll gain access (noun) to dating services worldwide.

“Please wait while we access (verb) your entire life history.”

Impact

Help the Grammar Patrol hold the line against using “impact” as a verb:

How will Farnsworth’s news impact the Wutherspoon account?

This asks, “How will Farnsworth’s news affect the Wutherspoon account?”

Have you seen Who Framed Roger Rabbit? (Not, Rabbit?? —see here.)

If that’s what you mean, why not use “affect?”

Your safest bet is to use “impact” as the powerful noun (meaning “strong influence” or “collision”) that it is:

We recognize the impact of Morris Dees’s work for tolerance.

You even need to take care in using “impact” as a noun. Where “impact” is used to mean the noun “effect,” or the verb “affect,” why not use those words?

Mama Mia’s new garlic-jalapeño sauce had a negative effect (not impact) on sales.

The new garlic-jalapeño sauce negatively affected (not impacted) Mama Mia’s sales.

Overnight

You might once have sent jewels overnight (an adverb) or by overnight express (an adjective). Today, you can say, “Overnight the jewels to London.” This is easily understood, even though “overnight” is not yet officially a verb.

Jury

Some dictionaries acknowledge “jury” as a noun (twelve on a jury), an adjective (a juried art show), and a verb. Other dictionaries don’t yet list “jury” as a verb, as it’s used here:

Catherine juried the Park Point Art Exhibit.

Will “jury” officially be accepted as a verb? Stay tuned to the amazing world of “verbing.”

Verbing Can Work

Sometimes turning nouns to verbs is just common sense. Like “overnight,” above, the new words “email” and “fax” (from “facsimile”) are now commonly used as verbs.

I’ll email you.

Fax me your résumé.

Informally, people use the names of companies as verbs, too.

I’ll FedEx or UPS you the drafts.

Xerox this fast!

Extensive searches were conducted. (Not, was—see here.)

Verbing Can Mangle Meaning

Beware of gratuitous “verbing.” These give the Grammar Patrol the shivers:

A store’s new motto: A new way to coupon!

Radio ad: We’re efforting to serve you better.

Magazine ad: With a Web site, a company has a much better chance of impressioning its customers.

“I office at Danny’s Coffee Shop.”

English evolves, but be a word watcher. Is the “verbed” word a sensible addition to our language, or is it nonsensical?

Verb Phrases

A verb phrase is a group of words that functions like a verb. (In Grammarspeak, it can also be called a “simple predicate.”)

has crept

is being teleported

might have been watered

Verbs of Being

The term “verbs of being” simply refers to “to be” verbs: am, is, are, was, were, be, been, being.

Voice, Active and Passive

Verbs can be active or passive. In the active voice, the subject performs the action. Headlines always use the active voice: “Yankees Win Series,” not “Series Won by Yankees.”

Andy spotted (active verb) the tornado from ten miles away.

In the passive voice, the subject receives the action or is acted upon:

The walleye was caught (passive verb) by Herbie.

Key words can indicate the passive voice: Be on the lookout for “by,” “to,” and “for” when they follow “was,” “were,” and “will be.”

was hit by

were sent to

will be used for

Most writing calls for the active voice. It’s clear, direct, and takes fewer words than the passive. The exceptions are scientific, medical, or formal writing where using the passive voice is appropriate and may even work better.

The number of termites is rising. (Not, amount—see here.)

A grammar checker would flag many passive verbs in Abraham Lincoln’s famous “Gettysburg Address.” Mr. Lincoln’s words remain moving as written.

(Whew! That’s it for the verb section, grammar lovers.)

VICE, VISE

A “vice” is “a bad habit.” A “vise” is a tool with jaws that clamp.

Onion rings are Laverne’s favorite vice.

My head feels as if it’s caught in a vise.

VOICE, ACTIVE AND PASSIVE (See verbs.)

VOWELS (See consonants, vowels.)

Y

YOUR, YOU’RE

“Your” is a possessive pronoun—it shows ownership.

I love your new plaid socks.

Send in your Halloween Jell-O recipe by March 1.

“You’re” is the contraction of “you are.”

You’re welcome to my go-cart. (“You are” welcome.)

If you can you read this bumper sticker, you’re too close. (“You are” too close.)

TIP: “Your” is often mistaken for “you’re.” Test to see if you’ve chosen the correct spelling by substituting “you are.” If it fits, the spelling should be “you’re.”

He’s more diplomatic than I. (Not, me—see here.)

MORE GRAMMAR RESOURCES

Great grammar resources abound. Check your library, bookstore, and online sites to further explore the ins and outs of English grammar.

The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4th ed., New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2000.

Agnes, Michael E., editor, Webster’s New World Misspeller’s Dictionary, 2nd ed., Indiana, IN: Wiley Publishers, Inc., 1997.

Bear, Donald R., et al. Words Their Way: Word Study for Phonics, Vocabulary, and Spelling Instruction. New York: Prentice Hall, 1995.

Bruder, Mary Newton. Much Ado About a Lot: How to Mind Your Manners in Print and in Person. New York: Hyperion, 2000.

The Chicago Manual of Style: The Essential Guide for Writers, Editors, and Publishers, 15th ed., John Grossman (preface), Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2003.

Elster, Charles Harrington, The Big Book of Beastly Mispronunciations, New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1999.

Fine, Edith H., and Judith P. Josephson. Nitty-Gritty Grammar: A Not-So-Serious Guide to Clear Communication. Berkeley, Calif.: Ten Speed Press, 1998.

Garner, Bryan A., A Dictionary of Modern American Usage, New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.

Gordon, Karen Elizabeth, The New Well-Tempered Sentence: A Punctuation Handbook for the Innocent, the Eager, and the Doomed, New York: Ticknor & Fields, 1993.

Hodges, John C., et al., Hodges’ Harbrace Handbook, 14th ed., New York: Harcourt College Publishers 2001.

Lederer, Richard, and Richard Dowis. Sleeping Dogs Don’t Lay. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2001.

O’Conner, Patricia T. Woe Is I, New York: Riverhead Books, 1998.

Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 5th ed. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, 2001.

Sabin, William A. The Gregg Reference Manual, 10th ed. New York: McGraw Hill/Irwin, 2004.

Stilman, Anne. Grammatically Correct: The Writer’s Essential Guide to Punctuation, Spelling, Style, Usage and Grammar. Cincinnati, Ohio: Writer’s Digest Books, 1997.

Strumpf, Michael, and Auriel Douglas, The Grammar Bible: Everything You Always Wanted to Know about Grammar but Didn’t Know Whom to Ask, New York: Owl Books, 2004.

Strunk, William Jr., and E. B. White. The Elements of Style, 4th ed. New York: Longman, 2000.

Venolia, Jan, Write Right!: A Desktop Digest of Punctuation, Grammar, and Style, 4th ed., Berkeley, CA: Ten Speed Press, 2001.

Wallraff, Barbara. Word Court: Wherein verbal virtue is rewarded, crimes against the language are punished, and poetic justice is done. New York: Harcourt, 2000.

Webster’s New World Misspeller’s Dictionary. Foster City, Calif.: IDG Books Worldwide, 1997.

For more on words and grammar, consult the sagacious reference librarians at your local library and surf the Net for grammar tips. Google sticky grammar topics for specific information.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Photo By Bob Bretell

Grammar is a very serious business.

—The Grammar Patrol

Judith Pinkerton Josephson (left) and Edith Hope Fine (right), aka the Grammar Patrol, taught grammar with a comic twist through San Diego State University Extension for twenty years. They have close to thirty books between them. Both are ardent bibliophiles and spot grammar bloopers everywhere.

Judith, an avid swimmer and cook, plays the violin. She has written poetry and nonfiction, including biographies about Beethoven, Walt Disney, Nikki Giovanni, Jesse Owen, Allan Pinkerton (no relation!), and Mother Jones. Her three childhood history books focus on the pioneer era, the turn of the century (the early1900s), and World War II.

Edith, a rabid recycler, likes swimming and Sudoku. Her books include CryptoMania!: Teleporting into Greek and Latin with the CryptoKids, Under the Lemon Moon, and biographies of Gary Paulsen, Barbara McClintock, Rosa Parks, and Martin Luther King Jr. Her Greek/Latin CryptoKids Decoder Program is used in schools nationwide.

Besides Nitty-Gritty Grammar and More Nitty-Gritty Grammar, Fine and Josephson are coauthors of two other books. Fine and Josephson both live in southern California near their families. Visit their websites for grammar quizzes, book giveaways, and more:

www.grammarpatrol.com

www.cryptokids.com

www.judithjosephson.com

www.edithfine.com

INDEX

A

a/an

abbreviations

“an” before

forming plurals of

redundancy and

accent marks

access

acronyms, 3.1, 3.2

active voice

acute accent

adjectives, 2.1, 3.1

absolute

adverbs vs.

comma separating

comparisons

compound, 3.1, 3.2

phrasal

pitfalls and rule-breakers, 3.1, 3.2

predicate

as subject complements

adverbs, 2.1, 3.1

adjectives vs.

comparisons

conjunctions as

adverse/averse

advertising, 3.1, 3.2

advice/advise

affect/effect

affluent/effluent

agreement

alliteration

allude/elude

altar/alter

among/between

amount/number

ampersand

anachronism/acronym

analogy

and

ampersand vs.

beginning sentence with

anecdote/antidote

antecedents

anxious/eager

anyway/anyways

apostrophes

placing

plurals and, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3

single quotation marks vs.

appositives

appraise/apprise

articles

as if/as though

as/like

asterisks

attain/obtain

averse/adverse

a while/awhile

B

bad/badly

beside/besides

between/among

boldface

both

brackets

breve

bring/take

Briticisms

bullets

but, beginning sentence with,

C

Calvary/cavalry

can/may

capitalization

careen/career

case

cavalry/Calvary

cedilla

choose/chose

circumflex

clauses

dependent, 3.1, 3.2

essential and nonessential

independent, 3.1, 3.2

clichés

collective nouns

colons, 3.1, 3.2

commas

with dates

after interjections

with numbers

with quotation marks, 3.1, 3.2

serial, 3.1, 3.2

comma splices

common nouns

companies, 3.1, 3.2

compare

contrast vs.,

to vs. with, 3.1

comparisons, 3.1, 3.2

complement/compliment

compound adjectives, 3.1, 3.2

compound nouns, 3.1, 3.2

compound subjects, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3

compound verbs

computer programs

conjunctions, 2.1, 3.1, 3.2

consonants

contractions, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3

contrast/compare

coordinating conjunctions

curly quotes

D

dangling participial phrases

dashes, 3.1, 3.2

data/datum

dates, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4

declarative sentences, 3.1, 3.2

defuse/diffuse

demonstrative pronouns, 3.1, 3.2

dependent clauses, 3.1, 3.2

desert/dessert

diacritical marks

diagramming

dictionaries, 3.1, 3.2

different from/than

diffuse/defuse

direct objects

disburse/disperse

disinterested/uninterested

double negatives

E

each/both

each other

both with,

one another vs.,

eager/anxious

effect/affect

effluent/affluent

ellipses

elude/allude

email, 3.1, 3.2

em dash, 3.1, 3.2

emigrant/immigrant

eminent/imminent

en dash, 3.1, 3.2

energize/enervate

entrée/entry

eponyms

ethnicities

euphemisms

every day/everyday

exclamation points, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4

exclamatory sentences

exert/expend

explicit/implicit

F

family relationships

farther/further

ferment/foment

fewer/less

figures of speech

figurative language

fillers, 3.1, 3.2

flounder/founder

foment/ferment

foreign words

former/latter

founder/flounder

fragments

fun

further/farther

G

gantlet/gauntlet

gender-inclusive language

geographic regions

gerunds, 3.1, 3.2

gerund phrases

good/well

got/have

grave accent

H

hanged/hung

have/got

healthy/healthful

helping verbs, 3.1, 3.2

historic/historical

home/hone

homographs

homonyms

homophones, 3.1, 3.2

hopefully

hung/hanged

hyperbole

hyphens

in compound nouns and adjectives, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3

in family relationships

in job titles

with prefixes, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3

I

idioms

I/me

immigrant/emigrant

imminent/eminent

impact

imperative sentences, 3.1, 3.2

implicit/explicit

imply/infer

incomplete sentences

indefinite pronouns, 3.1, 3.2

independent clauses, 3.1, 3.2

indicative mood

indirect objects

infer/imply

infinitive phrase

infinitives

initialisms

initials

interjections, 2.1, 3.1

interrogative pronouns

interrogative sentences, 3.1, 3.2

intransitive verbs

irregular verbs, 3.1, 3.2

italics

it’s/its, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3

J

jibe/jive

jury

jury instructions

L

languages

Latin plurals

latter/former

lay/lie, 3.1, 3.2

legal writing

lend/loan

less/fewer

let’s/lets

letters, forming plurals of

lie/lay, 3.1, 3.2

lighted/lit

like

as vs.,

comma before

as a filler

such as vs.,

likely

linking verbs, 3.1, 3.2

lists, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3

literal/literally

lit/lighted

loan/lend

loose/lose

“-ly” words

M

macron

malapropisms

marinade/marinate

may/can

medal/metal/mettle

mediocre/mundane

me/I

memento

metal/mettle/medal

metaphors, 3.1, 3.2

mode/mood

modifiers

money

moods, of verbs

mundane/mediocre

N

names

apostrophes in

appositives with

capitalization of

eponyms and, 3.1

hyphens in

plurals of

negatives

negligent/negligible

no

Nobel/noble

non sequitur

noun phrase

nouns, 2.1, 3.1

appositives

collective

common

compound, 3.1, 3.2

placement

plural, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4

predicate

pronouns agreeing with

proper, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3

as subject complements

turned into adjectives

number

of pronouns

of verbs, 3.1, 3.2

number

“a” and “the” before

amount vs.,

numbers

cardinal vs. ordinal

commas with

en dashes with

hyphens with

plurals of

spelling out

O

objects

obtain/attain

older/oldest

one another/each other

onomatopoeia

overnight

oxymorons

P

parentheses, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3

participial phrases, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3

participles

parts of speech

passed/past

passive voice

peak/peek/pique

percent/percentage

periods, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3

person

of pronouns

of verbs, 3.1, 3.2

photogenic/photographic

phrasals

phrases

pique/peak/peek

plurals

of abbreviations

apostrophes and, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3

of contractions

of italicized words

Latin

of letters

of nouns, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4

of numbers

poetry

possessives

apostrophes and, 3.1, 3.2

of italicized words

pronouns as, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4

predicate

predicate adjectives

predicate nouns

prefixes

hyphens with, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3

negative

prepositional phrases, 3.1, 3.2

prepositions, 2.1, 3.1

ending sentences with

objects of, 3.1, 3.2

phrasal, 3.1, 3.2

preventive/preventative

pronouns, 2.1, 3.1

agreement

case

demonstrative, 3.1, 3.2

indefinite, 3.1, 3.2

interrogative

number

objective, 3.1, 3.2

person

possessive, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4

relative

rule-breakers

“self”-ending

as subject complements

subjective, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3

pronunciation

British vs. American

regional

proper nouns, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3

punctuation

bloopers

British vs. American

colons

commas

dashes

ellipses

exclamation marks

after interjections

in legal writing

periods

question marks

quotation marks

semicolons

puns

Q

qualifiers

question marks

with italics

with quotation marks, 3.1, 3.2

questions

direct

indirect

within parentheses

within questions

quoted words and

rhetorical

series of

quiz

quotation marks

with no and yes, 3.1

punctuation with, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3

single

for titles of works

quotations

brackets with

colons with

R

radio shows

raise/rise

real/really

redundancy

reek/wreak

references

reflexive pronouns

regard/regards

regimen/regiment

regionalisms

regular verbs

relative pronouns

religions

“re-” words

rigorous/vigorous

rise/raise

roots, 3.1, 3.2

run-on sentences

S

salient/saline

scientific names

seasons

“self”-ending pronouns

semantics

semicolons, 3.1, 3.2

sentences

beginning, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3

complex

compound

diagramming

ending with prepositions

incomplete

run-on

simple

serial comma, 3.1, 3.2

set/sit

shall/will

sic

similes, 3.1, 3.2

sit/set

slashes

smart quotes

some day/someday

some time/sometime/sometimes

spelling

British vs. American

easy mix-ups

homophones and, 3.1, 3.2

split infinitives

spoken errors

sports talk

subject

complements

complete

compound, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3

simple

verb agreeing with, 3.1, 3.2

subjunctive mood

subordinating conjunctions

substandard English, fm1.1, 3.1, 3.2

subtitles

such as, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3

suffixes, 3.1, 3.2

superlatives, 3.1, 3.2

supposed to

sure/surely

syntax

T

take/bring

tenant/tenet

tense

than/then

that

which vs.,

who vs.,

the

their/there/they’re

then/than

tight/tightly

tilde

time, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4

titles

of people, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3

of works, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4

to/too/two

toward/towards

transitive verbs

TV shows

U

umlaut

uninterested/disinterested

unique

used to

usual/usually

V

vain/vane/vein

verbals

verbing, 3.1, 3.2

verb phrases

verbs, 2.1, 3.1

action, 3.1

agreeing with subject, 3.1, 3.2

of being, 3.1, 3.2

compound

contractions, 3.1, 3.2

gerunds

helping, 3.1, 3.2

infinitives

intransitive and transitive

irregular, 3.1, 3.2

linking, 3.1, 3.2

mood

number and person

participles

phrasal, 3.1, 3.2

phrases

regular

of the senses, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3

tense

voice

vice/vise

vigorous/rigorous

voice

vowels

W

Web site addresses, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3

well/good

“well-” words

which/that

who

that vs.,

whom vs.,

will/shall

wishes

work talk

wreak/reek

Y

yes

younger/youngest

your/you’re, 3.1, 3.2